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STANDARD WORKS FOR PAINTERS^DECORATORS, AND BUILDERS.

Fifth Edition. Revised and Enlarged throughout. With Illustrations

PAINTERS' COLOURS, OILS, AND VARNISHES

A PRACTICAL MANUAL.

By GEORGE H. HURST, F. C.S.

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LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND

FOURTH EDITION, Revised and Enlarged.

ferjdoft\ChAs Griffin ■avi.C°M

19 13.

l^r-4;

The Manual now laid before the public has been made
possible by the sifting and arrangement of many years'
notes of all that has appeared worthy of record, in processes,
combinations, and practices connected with the trade
coming under my notice during practical work. For the
past twelve years I have tested all recipes and methods in
a room set apart for the purpose, with the ultimate object
of collating- them in a form for publication. The need of a
comprehensive manual for technological classes in house
painting and decorating has provided the opportunity for
carrying out my intention, and I now, for the first time,
issue the whole in a concise and orderly form for refer-
ence.

The chapters follow the sequence, and cover the ground
adopted by me in lectures given to the students at the
Manchester Technical School for House painting and
Decorating ; and, feeling that the possession of a very
advanced education should not be necessary to the under-
standing of such a work, I have endeavoured to convey the

VI PREFACE.

matter in as simple and direct a form as is consistent with
the subjects treated of.

The scope of the volume being limited to elementary
facts, the underlying chemical and scientific reasons for
methods and processes have only been dealt with where
they immediately concern the working painter and decor-
ator. Colour and ornament have been lightly touched
upon in a practical and popular manner where unavoid-
ably intermixed with the practice of the craft, but the
principles laid down are based upon a wide experience.

For additional information upon materials, I refer the
student to Hurst's Painters Colours, Oils, and Varnishes.
Graining, sign writing, marbling, and paperhanging have
only been touched upon in so far as principles are con
cerned ; the space at disposal preventing a more length}
treatment. I have felt it necessary to devote more space
to such subjects as have hitherto been but superficially
handled — e.g., plain painting, colour mixing, distemper-
ing, and the technique of decorating.

I have written as a painter to painters, and if the infor-
mation is sometimes dogmatic in form, I believe it to
be reliable in substance. I shall be at all times pleased
to receive additional facts, corrections, or notes for the
benefit of future editions.

The illustrations, initials, and head and tail pieces are
intended, not as ideal designs, but as explanatory of the
text and of the application of the principles advocated in
the book, for which purpose they have been specially
drawn.

PREFACE. VU

I am indebted to Messrs. Hamilton & Co. for illustra-
tions of brushes and samples, and to Messrs. Mander Bros.,
Messrs. Harland & Co., Messrs. Reeves & Sons, Messrs.
Lewis Berger & Sons, Messrs. Wilkinson, He}? wood & Clark,
The Silicate Paint Company, and many others for assist-
ance, both directly and indirectly — most of the materials
recently used for testing and experiment having been
presented by these firms to the technical class which

I conduct.

WALTER JOHN PEARCE,

PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION.

The present edition of this book will b.e found to contain much
new mutter and mention of many new materials and processes.

An exhaustive correspondence with manufacturers and care-
fully conducted experimental tests have enabled me to sift and
reduce the new matter to the smallest and most readily accessible
proportions.

I take this opportunity of thanking many of the foremost
firms for keeping me supplied with samples of their latest
productions, which are at all times welcomed. It is not possible
to speak authoritatively upon paints and varnishes without
ample opportunity of keeping them uuder lengthened obser-
vation and putting them to practical tests of long duration,
which, in the interests of the students for whom this book is
primarily intended, I am always ready to do. Many materials
are not dealt with at length because no such opportunity has
been afforded.

The increasing use of zinc whites and the vast improvement
in their composition has led to the re-writing of parts of the
work. It must be pointed out, however, that there are still
many places in which the words " white lead " have been used
to indicate the general white base of paint in cases where a
reliable zinc white may be understood to be equally ajjplicable.

WALTER J. PEARCE.

llESTHAVEN, 29 LANSDOWNE K.0AD,

West Didsbuuy, Lancs.

GENERAL CONTENTS.

PAGES

INTRODUCTION, ... 1-4

CHAPTER I.

ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF HOUSE PAINTING.

The Principal Reasons for Painting— General— Special — Practical
— Application— Economy in Working — Cleanliness in Work-
ing—Trade and Health — Causes of Bad Health among
Painters — Clients' Requirements, , 5-12

CHAPTER II.

WORKSHOP AND STORES.

Efficient Premises a Necessity — The Paint Shop — Position —
Lighting — Must be Dry — Water — Heating Arrangements —
Ceiling — Colouring — Fittings and Furniture — Colours, Driers,
Oils, &c, required on Paint Bench— Drawers to Paint Bench
for Tools— Palette Knives for Paint Stone — To Clean Paint
Stone — Brush Trays — Brush Washer or Smutch-Can — Zinc
Covering for Paint Bench — Ready-made Colours — Large
Kegs — Drawers for Powder Colours — Weighing Machine and
Scales — Rough Day-Book — Oil Tanks — Whiting and Plastei
Bins — "Pickle" Cask — Smudge Keg — Flour Barrel —
Shelves — Cupboard — Pigeon Holes — Paint Mill— The Paint-
ing-Room— Wall for Large Cartoons, &c. — Benches and

CONTENTS.

PAGES

Drawers— Reference Books — Gas — Portable Benches — Paint
Stone Muller and Knives — Sign- Writers' Easels — Entrance
Ways — Shelves — H eating — Stores — Fittings — Use — Return
of Empty Packages— Storing of Parts of Cases — Putting up
Material for a Job— Despatch of Material for a Job — Manage-
ment of Paint Shop— Waste— Returned Residuum Paint-
Fat Colour and Smudge— Salvage of Fat Colour and Smudge
— Thinnings for bmudge— Prevention of Skinning and Har-
dening of Stock Colours — White Lead — Conservation of Tube
Colours — Stock Articles Enumerated — Purchase of Stock, . 13-30

CHAPTER III.

PLANT AND APPLIANCES.

Ladders — Selection — Mode of Using — Ladder Brackets — Scaffold
Poles — Planks — Scaffold Construction — Trestles — Steps —
Cords— Window Brackets — Cradles — Pulley Blocks — Paste
Boards — Paint Bench Trestles — Dust Sheets— To Protect
Stone Floors, Tiles, &c— Testing Scaffolding— Marking and
Repainting Plant — Cartage — Storage of Scaffolding— Iron
Rods and Tube for Scaffolding — Small Articles — Buckets —
Cans or Kettles — Pots or Pans — Small Pots, &c. — Stock
Drums or Kegs — Mixing Boards — Burning-off Lamps — Char-
coal Burners — Strainers— Plant Book — Rough Entry or Day
Book for Paint Shop— Quantity of Plant required on Jobs, . 3148

CHAPTER IV.

OF BRUSHES, TOOLS, &c.

PAINTING BRUSHES.

Hog-hair — Various Hair used in Brushes — Foreign Brushes —
French Brushes — Methods of Fixing Hair — Selection — Test
of Good Brushes — Distemper Brushes — The Best Distemper
Brushes— Sizes — Wash-off, Caustic, and Lime-white Brushes
— Painters' Dusters — Paint or Ground Brushes — Patent
Ready-made Brush Bridles — How to Bridle a Brush — Varnish
Brushes— Sash Tools — Stipplers — Paperhangers' Brushes —

CONTENTS.

Fitches — Softeners— Stencil Tools— Sable Writers— Brushes
Found by the Employer — The Purchase of Brushes — True
Economy in Brush Buying — Storage of Brushes, , . . 49-69

CHAPTER V.

MATERIALS.

Pigments — White Lead — Tests — Zinc White — Other White —
Ochres — Umbers — Browns — Chromes— Dutch Pink — Artists'
Yellows — Reds — Blues — Smalts — Greens — Blacks — Consis-
tency of Colours Ground in Oil - Commixture of Pigments —
Derivation of Pigments — Adulterations of Pigments— Test for
Staining Power in Pigments — Twelve Colours for Oil Colour
Box— Whiting — Coach Painters' Colours— Ready Mixed Pig-
ments—Driers — Drying Agents for Paint — Liquid Driers
and Terebine — Powder Driers — French Powder Driers —
Painters' Oils — Turpentine — Linseed Oil — Size — Glue —
Mediums and Binders — Washable Distempers — Plasters and
Stoppings— Glass Paper and Smoothing Materials — Import-
ance of Good Pigments— Comparative Prices of Materials, . 70-92

CHAPTER VI.

PAPER AND OTHER HANGINGS.

WALL HANGINGS.

Wall Papers — Qualities — Varieties — Dimensions — Comparison
between Wall Paper and Painting — Selection of Wall Papers
— Hints on Choice of Wall Papers for Special Purposes —
Relievo Wall Hangings— Liner usta Walton — Fibrous Plaster
— Sheet Metal Friezes — Jute Canvas for Wall Hangings, . 93-100

CHAPTER VII.

HANGING PAPER.

Tools — Preparation of Walls— Measuring for Papers — Paste —
Edging Papers — Hanging — Pasting — Matching — Lining

CONTENTS.

Papers — Papering Ceilings — Lining Cracked Ceilings — Panel-
ling and Borders — Removal of Fittings — Hanging Relief
Materials— Glue Paste— Paste for Anaglypta, . . . 1U1-114

CHAPTK R VIII.

COLOUR MIXING.

Mixing Clairecolle — Mixing Distemper — Mixing Paint- — Effects of
Oils and Turps in Mixing Paint — Drying Action of Paints —
Action of Raw Oil versus Boiled Oil — Protective Agency in
Paint — General Hints on Paint Mixing — Colours Recom-
mended for Tinting and Staining Paints — ■ Opaque and
Transparent Pigments — Matching Colour in Paint — Important
Rules for Matching Colours — Mixed Tints and Colours —
Quantity of Paint to Cover given Area — Stopping — Complete
List of Distemper Stainers — Media for Decorative Painting in
Distemper, • 115-133

CHAPTER IX.

DISTEMPERING.

DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OP DISTEMPER.

Advantages— Objections — Mixing Distemper— Surfaces for Dis-
temper— Colour Limit of Distemper — Durability of Distemper
— Cleaning Distemper Work— Whitening Ceilings and Walls —
Washing off Old Distemper — Stippling Distemper — American
Distemper — Painting Plaster prior to Distempering -Damp
Walls— Duresco and Distemper, 134-144

CHAPTER X.

ON PLAIN PAINTING.

Definition — Object— Qualifications of Paint— Painting on New
Plaster — First Coat on New Plaster — Second Coat— Third
Coat — Flatting— Painting on Stucco and Cement Walls —

CONTENTS.

Painting on Stone — Re-painting Painted Walls— Painting
New Wood-work — Stopping — Filling up — Re-painting Old
Wood-work — Burning off Old Paint — General Hints on
Painting Wood-work — General Notes on Painting — Spreading
and Consistency of Paint— Sequence of Coats in Painting —
Knotting on Work Prior to Painting — Sizing on Painted
Work — Technical Terms Descriptive ot Paint — Washing
Down Prior to Re-painting — Knots — Rubbing Down— Tar
Spots— Painting Round Edges — -Dusting — Fat Edges — Hints
on Flatting — Faults in Painting — Cracking — Blistering —
Cissing — Striking or Flashing — Ropiness — Ladders — Grinning
Through in Painting— Drying of Paint — Time for Outside
Painting — Effects of Undercoats in Finish — Re-touching —
Rubbing Down — Priming — Painting Signs, &c. — Painting
Metal-work — ■ Re-painting Old Iron-work — Painting Hot
Pipes and Boilers, &c. — Painting Rough Wood-work— Quick
Paints — Painting Canvas — Acid Resisting and Insulating
Paints — Fire-proof Paints — Luminous Paints,

145-172

CHAPTER .XL

STAINING.

Woods for • Staining — The Artistic Limitation of Staining —
Classes of Staining— Water Staining— Chemical Staining —
Water Coating — Oil Staining — Varnish Staining — Spirit
Staining — Improving — Natural Graining — Comparative
Utility of Stains — Application of Stains -List of Colours
for Water — Coating Wood — List of Deepening Stains —
Ornamental Staining, ........

173-182

CHAPTER XII.

VARNISH AND VARNISHING.

Varnish — Classes of Varnish — Oil Varnishes — Spirit Varnishes —

Elastic and Hard Varnishes — Successive Coats of Varnish

Applying Varnish — Principal Varnishes in Use — Straining

CONTENTS.

PAGES
Varnishes — Hints on Varnishing— Surfaces for Varnishing —
Felting Down Varnish — Polishing Varnished Work — Faults
in Varnishing — Pinholing and Cissing — Pock Marks or Pitting
— Grittiness — Specks — ('racking — Wrinkles — The Use of
Enamels — Lacquers — Testing Varnishes — White Polished
Enamel, . 183 195

CHAPTER XIII.

IMITATIVE PAINTING.

What is Graining? — Limitations to Graining, &c. — The Condemna-
tion of Graining — The Intentions of the Grainer — What to
Imitate in Graining — Positions Suitable for Graining — Limits
to Imitation — Varied Methods of Graining, .... 196-201

CHAPTER XIV.

GRAINING.

Graining Oak — Pollard Oak- Mahogany — Walnut -Pitch Pine —
Rosewood — Maple — Satin Wood — Ash — Fancy Woods-
General Hints, . '202-211

CHAPTER XV.

MARBLING.

White Marble — Sienna Marble — Italian Pink Marble— Black and
Gold Marble — Grey Marbles — Red Marbles — Green Marbles
— Lapis Lazuli — Graniting — Devonshire Marble — Alabaster—
St. Anne's Marble 212-215

CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTER XVI.

GILDING. PAGEa

Methods of Gilding — Old Gold Size — Japanners' Gold Size — Water
Gold Sizes — Burnish Gold Size — Matt Gold Size — Isinglass
Gold Size — Clear Size for Gold — Tools for Laying Gold —
Laying Gold Leaf— To Prevent Gold Sticking to Ground —
Burnish and Matt Gilding — Glass Gilding — Platinum and
Silver Laying and Metalling — Bronzes — Lacquer for Metals —
Preparing Open Grain Wood and Stone for Gilding, . . 216-228

CHAPTER XVII.

LETTERING AND SIGN- WRITING.

Shaded Lettering — Illegible Type in Lettering — Books on Letter-
ing— Forms of Letters Changed by Environment — Rules for
Construction of Letters — Lettering and Methods of Work —
Colouring of Lettering— Enrichment and Prominence of
Letters — Setting and Sign- Writing — Pounces — Painting
Letters— Hints on Using Sable Pencils — Writing on Silk —
Glass Embossing — Etching Glass — General Notes on Sign-
Writing, 229-245

CHAPTER XVIII.

DECORATION— GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Importance of Colour — Position of Ornament — Scale in Ornament
— The Consideration of a Decorative Scheme — Laws in
Decoration and Ornament, 246-259

CHAPTER XIX.

DECORATION IN DISTEMPER.

Qualities in Distemper for Decoration— Sketch Designs — Setting

Out Ornament — Stencils and Stencilling — Distemper Painting, 260-270

CHAPTER XX.

PAINTED DECORATION.

Comparison with Distemper — Stencilling in Paint — Hand-
painted Ornament — Contrast of Gloss and Flatting, . . 271-276

SV1 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXI.

RELIEVO DECORATION.

r-Aor.g
Relief Materials— Gesso aud its Treatment— Decoration of Relievo

Materials generally — Sgraffito 277-282

CHAPTER XXII.

COLOUR.

Colour in Historic Ornament — Theory of Colour — The Chromatic
Circle — Classes of Colour Combination — Colour Values and
Qualities — Requirements for the Study of Colour — How to
decide a Colour Scheme— Useful Rules for the Colourist —
Colour Combinations for Decorators — Effects of Artificial
Light on Colour, '283--29(3

CHAPTER XXIII.

MEASURING AND ESTIMATING.

Methods of Measuring Work— Estimating ..... 297-209

CHAPTER XXIV.

COACH PAINTING.

Differences between House and Coach Painters' Work — Preparation
for Coach Painting— Filling up — Finishing— Varnishing—
Lining and Decorating — Ship Painting, 300-305

CHAPTER XXV.
PAINTERS" TECHNICAL CLASSES, . . 306-309

Index 311

LIST OF PLATES.

PLATES IN COLOURS.

Plate T. Polychromatic Colour Scheme,
,, II. Complementary ,, ,,

,, III. Monochromatic ,, ,,

,, IV. Analogous ,, ,,

. Frontispiece

facing page 56

140

244

Plate 1.

9.
10.
10a
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

PLATES IN BLACK AND WHITE.

Decorative panels designed for conventional
colouring, .......

Decoration of house front above shop,

Panels designed for naturalistic colour treatment,

,, ,, flat naturalistic colouring, .

,, ,, flat polychromatic colouring,

Selection of contrast in paperhangings,
Contrasting arrangement of paperhangings, „
Diagram showing drop pattern, ....
Panel designed for semi-natural colouring, .
Panels suited to stained wood decoration, .
Combined wall paper, .....
Panels designed for monochrome painting, .
Simple stencils, illustrating importance of contrast,
Design complete in itself at all distances from the eye,
Outline patterns for staining upon wood, .
Naturalistic patterns for staining in flat colourings.
Simple borders for practising brush work

Original treatment of plain alphabet,
Lower case letters for same,
Original alphabet, modern, .
,, Gothic, .

Letters for glass embossing,
Degrees of conventionality in floral designs
Influence of pattern upon colour effects,
Constructive decoration in application,
Borders for one colour stencilling,
Natural ties in stencil work,
Stencil friezes for blended stencilling,
Friezes for polychromatic colouring, .
Patterns stencilled over joints of wall pape

facing page 6
10
12
16
26
32
48
64
78
86

120
136
154

160
162
170
188
204
206
220
236
252
25S
26S
284
294
296
300
302
304

T757£l=^ [ practical operations involved in painting and
/^"j-ffr^ decorating must be based upon sound theoreti-
^||jj cal knowledge, otherwise they are invariably

unsuccessful. Sound theories, in their turn,
must have a basis of definite and clearly
understood facts. Hence, the student, when he has
acquired theoretical knowledge, must further culti-
vate the ability to correctly appreciate the postulates,
or existing facts and conditions of each particular
field of operation, in order to attain practical success.
In other words, like the surgeon, lie must first
diagnose his case, then apply his theoretical know-
ledge to it, and finally, operate.
In no other realm of mechanical labour is this method
more obviously necessary than in painting, because in no
other class of work are there more ever- varying conditions. Each
particular class of work has its own requirements and sur-
roundings, and, beyond this, each individual case will vary
materially from the same kind of case elsewhere.

One of the main factors in the decadence of good craftsmanship
in the trade has been the lack of this perception of what is re-
quisite, and the adoption of a striving for superficial and often
unnatural effect, embodied under the phrase " what looks well."
The wholesale provision of manufactured decorations, designed and
coloured for anywhere in general and nowhere in particular, has
fostered this spirit of iazy acceptance, and dwarfed the faculty of
critical perception of what is suitable for given positions and uses.
Exquisite and well designed as ai*e the decorations supplied by
many art manufacturers, even work admitting of so much indi-
viduality as do many of the stencilled friezes^ becomes hackneyed
by repetition. Such decorations as these are frequently out

2 TAINTING AND DECORATING.

of character and out of harmony with the surroundings in which
they are placed. The insinuating charm of work possessing in
some part individual hand labour makes this class of decoration a
dangerous obstruction to improvement in the quality of work
designed and executed in situ. It is not enough that the general
style and scale of a frieze or a ceiling shall accord with its
associated decoration, but the repeats, the angles, and the whole
setting out of the ornament ought to be determined upon the spot.

The habit of working to a ready-made specification, drawn up
by persons devoid of a knowledge of the chemical and technical
aspects of the craft, has also done much to discourage the practical
interest of the craftsman in his operations. This has removed from
him any responsibility for technical failures, and set up that de-
structive standard of comparison, cheapness, which is another foe
to thoroughness and good workmanship. Nothing, on the other
hand, is more helpful than an intelligently drawn specification
from a man who understands the capabilities and peculiarities
of the materials and the craft. Such a specification, in the
hands of one who can detect any attempts to go behind it, is in
every way conducive to the elevation of the trade.

In order to arrive at a correct appreciation of the position, and
to use theoretical knowledge to the best advantage, the question
that first demands settlement is the all-important and common-
place one — What is the precise object to be attained in the case
to be dealt with 1 Success, as has been pointed out, depends
upon the shrewdness with which we completely survey the
position and sum up the postulates. A man may be a very
dictionary of recipes and processes, but unless he commences in
this way he will certainly fail as a decorator. The principle which
in criticism will be applied to all our work is the question — Does
it fulfil its primary object? If it fails in this it fails in every-
thing, for no amount of technique or elaboration or costly
material will compensate for the lack of fitness for purpose.

First, then, what is the end generally to be attained?

A compliance with the hard matter of fact laws of utility
is inseparable from good taste and sound craftsmanship. Beauty
is so inextricably bound up with fitness, especially in relation
to arrangements of form and colour, that we may almost assent
to the proposition that in this connection abstract beauty cannot
be considered to exist at all. The "beautiful " is determined by
more or less fixed rules based upon fitness ; it admits of no
excess and no deficit. It must comprehend due proportion and
purposeful distribution of parts. Incongruity of association
must be absent, the sensation it should give is one of satisfied

INTRODUCTION. 6

complacency and sufficiency and of precise suitability. A feel-
ing of extravagance, superabundance, redundancy, or waste
destroys this impression. It cannot certainly exist conjointly
with any lack of fitness either in material, form, or colour.

In the division of mechanical work the same rules apply.
The excellence of work is in a large measure dependent on its
efficiency in fulfilling the purpose for which it was executed.
What would be an excellent tinish for one class of work would
show bad judgment and ignorance if used for some other position.
Utilitarian considerations are of relatively greater weight with
the average Briton than purely jesthetic considerations, and
whilst the endeavour of the decorative house painter should
always be to cultivate and forward the aesthetic side of his
craft, if he can show that the two considerations are really
inseparable, he will go far toward persuading the householder
to be less chary of spending his money for the purpose of
making his home and surroundings well-preserved, tasteful,
cleanly, beautiful, and refined.

The question of colour deserves far more consideration than
the average house painter gives to it. When we consider
thoughtfully the very large quantity of external painting that is
done yearly, and the lamentably tawdry, muddy, or dirty
results, and contrast these with what might be done by the
same amount of labour and material in the hands of a good
colourist working in accord svith a common well-defined scheme,
we are astounded at the supineness of those in authority, whose
tas:es are supposed to be cultivated. We almost pine for compul-
sory legislation on the subject. Take, for instance, the west-end of
London, where acres, yea miles, of frontage are painted annually,
and practically the whole triennially. Just imagine a standard
three or four colours made compulsory for outdoor work for a
pei'iod of five years, and what a different scene the place would
present! Our cities, instead of reflecting the dirt and smoke in
the colouring of the walls and roofs, might be cheery and even
elevating to the senses.

Is there some weighty element that makes for the universal
sadness and badness? We believe there is, and that it is in
great measure due to a total misconception. Ninety per cent,
of persons appear to think that the one desideratum in a paint
is that it " wont show the dirt." This is quite desirable, but
when the desideratum is obtained by using " dirt colour," it
evidences a lack of thought and a failure to appreciate the value
of colour. In however dirty an atmosphere they may be placed,
clean looking tints will look cleaner than the dirty sombre ones ;

* PAINTIN'O AND DECORATING.

and under the ordinary deposits of soot and dust, bright colours
will have a generally cleaner and brighter appearance than
-.■.leys and drabs. Yellows, blues, and reds, when bright in hue,
will actually be improved and toned by the acccumulation of a
normal quantity of dust. These facts should be borne in mind,
ami no opportunity allowed to pass unimproved when the
surroundings of our life may be cheered and brightened by a
little of one of God's best gifts to man, "colour."

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

CHAPTER I.

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THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING.

'OUSE PAINTING is undertaken for
three principal reasons : —
The first is for preservation.
The second for cleanliness.
The third for beauii/ication.
General. — These three principal
reasons are placed in the above order,
because the quality of cleanliness is of
greater importance to the community
than that of beauty ; and further, be-
cause the first necessity provides the
reason for the very existence of the
craft. In addition to these reasons, the
fact is also apparent, that it is not possible to have complete and
true beauty if the first two qualities are absent.

These three principal requirements may be termed the general
reasons why house painting as a craft is a necessity of modern

0 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

life. They mu.st bo kept fully in view, and given due and
relative prominence when determining what is to be done and
how we will do it.

Health and art have been said to be twin sisters, and, in the
old English sense, science meant knowing what to do, and art
expressed the act of doing what science dictated as necessary
ami right. Thus, health, science, and art are inseparably inter-
mixed; each makes for each. It is the artistic surroundings
that induce health ; it is health that produces the perfect man ;
ami the perfect man physically is the perfect man aesthetically.
The separation of art and work is quite a latter-day innovation,
the two being really indissoluble. As has been pointed out, art
means the act of doing work, provided the doing is scientific,
right, and true.

Again, science is exactness, viz., truth; thus we see that truth
must be in work to ennoble it into art; art work, therefore, is
trice work. It is interesting to note how in old times this idea
was firmly rooted in the mind of the people. In the Bible, as in
many other old books, the idea of a connection between truth
and beauty is constantly met with. Take the phrase " beauty ol
holiness,"or wholeness — viz., freedom from moral imperfection or
inaccuracy, and many other instances of similar kind ; every-
where the relation between truth and beauty is insisted upon.

Special. — Next to these general reasons, there are more
special and particular reasons which apply to each separate
part of the work, and which will be found to vary with each
particular set of circumstances surrounding the work.

These particular reasons are of no less importance, and must
be looked for, discovered, and considered, if the craftsman desires
to have the credit of being a sensible and successful workman.

For instance, there are the following : —

Some parts of the work will have much wear and tear ;

Others will have little or none.

Some will be exposed to the weather ;

Some will be in protected situations.

Some will be seen by daylight only ;

Some will be seen by gaslight ;

Some will be seen by both daylight and gaslight.

Some will need constant cleaning ;

Some will be out of reach and, therefore, difficult to clean.

Business premises must look smart and attractive.

Signboards must compel attention.

Some rooms must be quiet and unassertive.

Some work will be for places of amusement and gaiety ;

Some for places of gravity and seriousness.

In different business houses the class of goods shown must be cousidered.

«0 ^*|gg *if

-*>. _^. ^«». . i l.--<.>N. knSo >*>■*

Plate l.— DECORATIVE PANELS DESIGNED FOR CONVENTIONAL COLOURI
To face p. 6.]

TPIE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 7

In public places the class of frequenters must be taken into account.
Architectural features may need emphasizing ;
Other features may require disguising.

Personal idiosyncrasies of clients need respecting, and a host of other
special requirements need taking into account.

All these, it may be noted, are points altogether apart from
workmanship or technique, and are often overlooked by good
craftsmen, but no amount of good detail or workmanship is a
substitute for the proper and due recognition of them. The
failure to appreciate their importance will lead to error, miscon-
ception, and dissatisfaction.

Practical Application. — As an illustration of the simplicity
with which these considerations apply themselves in practice, it
may be useful to glance rapidly through an ordinary dwelling-
house which, we assume, has to be re-painted. It will then be
seen that, though apparently it is a difficult matter to remember,
and to apply so many principles to an ordinary job, the diffi-
culties vanish on the approach and application of a little common-
sense reasoning.

First, the outside of the house will be exposed to wet, heat,
and frost. To meet these demands the work must be finished in
hard, glossy colour with a good body ; each coat must be
thoroughly dry before the next is applied. The colours chosen
must be of a permanent character, those having the greatest
weather-resisting properties being preferable. We must re-
member that the destructive action of the elements will commence
upon the surface. In the colouring, allowance must be made for
the action of the weather, and also for the surrounding brick,
tile, slate, or stone.

The Entrance Boor should be particularly well finished, as
being the first thing that the visitor to the house sees and
examines.

Upon entering the house, the remarks that apply to the
entrance door will hold good in regard to the hall. Effort should
be made here to convey an impi'ession of comfort, warmth, and
homeliness. It should, moreover, be a reflex of the tastes and
character of its owner. Any undue parade of gilding or expensive
material will impart an unpleasant air of chilling grandeur and
ostentation, which better befits a public building than a home.
The display of wealth should be reserved for more pi-ivate apart-
ments. The colouring of the hall should be low in tone and
richly quiet in effect, suggesting comfort and even opulence,
but forming a simple contrast to the entertaining and other
rooms opening out of it. The finish of the work should be hard

8 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

and durable, with few ledges upon which dust can accumulate,
as it will be less shut in than the rooms.

If there is a Vestibule before entering the hall proper, it may
be safely treated in brighter colouring, as it "will be a mere
passage-way, and a little extra brightness or even hardness will not
offend the eye in passing by to the same extent that it would do
in a room where we have to stay for a length of time. Here again,
the colour should have a hard and durable surface, readily
washable, as it will be more exposed to dirt than the hall.

In the Dining- Room, the surroundings may be so treated as tc
be redolent of cheery comfort and prosperity. Full-toned, rich,
juicy colouring and decided treatment will give the necessary
effect (see coloured plate No. II.). As the time spent in the
room is not of long continuance, we may indulge in fairly decided
hues without fear of tiring the eyes. Again, as the room will
be much used at night, we must make allowances in colouring
which will be determined in character and extent by the kind of
artificial light used, a subject which will have attention in a later
chapter. The ornament, too, may b;? so selected as to be
especially appropriate to the room ; not necessarily consisting of
bunches of game and vegetables, but yet in harmony with the
fact that the room is principally used for eating and drinking.
A great charm in old work is the evidence of thought and
meaning, without vulgar parade of facts, which results in
appropriate symbolism only noticeable to the thoughtful and
initiated.

Next we come to the Drawing-Room. Here we have quite a
different key to work in — lightness, grace, cheerful brightness,
and free play for fancy — a room used for work, music, dancing,
leading, and other recreations, giving unlimited scope for the
absence of conventionalism. It is par excellence the ladies' room,
and in its decoration we may cultivate a certain femininity of
style, without weakness, in pretty contrast to the more masculine
treatment accorded to the dining-room. Here, too, we have less
rough wear and tear than in any room in the house. The pre-
sence of nic-nacs and bric-a-brac tends to more care in cleaning.
We may, therefore, use our most delicate tints without fear of
their being injured, and indulge in fine and beautiful surfaces.
In this room the afternoon and evening are usually spent, and
light colours will assist the light. They must also, of necessity,
be used as a fitting background to delicately tinted evening
dresses, and as a fo'I to the complexions of the ladies ; hence we
carefully avoid hot colours as salmon or terracotta, and prefer
soft greens, greys, or delicately broken yellows.

THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. »

The Breakfast or Morning-Boom next compels attention. Cheer-
ful hues should here aid in raising the spirits and setting the
keynote for the day. Neither too heavy nor too light, the
colour and ornament should be healthily contrasted, suggestive
of life and motion. All effects of colour conducive to somnolence
should be avoided. If a foliage paper is introduced, let it
represent a vigorous, upward, spring-like growth and freshness;
and avoid autumn leaves and winter stems, drooping, heavy-
scented flowers, and drowsy colouring. We are hardly as con-
scious as we should be of the powerful influences of little things
in our surroundings. The eye, more than any other sense,
cjnveys its impressions with electric force and rapidity, and
with a certainty of result which we are slow to trace to its real
causes.

The Library and Study will each in its turn suggest thoughtful
and sober treatment. Here we may use tertiary colouring and
forms without a disturbing or startling element. The decoration
should not court attention, but it should be so studied in form
and meaning as to lead the mind back by suggestion to books.
Quotations and mottoes will not be out of place, especially if
they embody the ideas and principles of the master of the
house.

General quotations that apply anywhere are not to be recom-
mended, nor is it good taste to exhibit moral injunctions in
the guise of quotations, unless in nurseries, schoolrooms, or
children's rooms. The colouring should not be heavy and
depressing, but of a medium depth.

Next in reference to these rooms generally, one may be very
lofty and another too low; they may be badly lighted, or too
gaunt and cheerless by reason of large windows. All these,
and similar faults, must be, to the best of the decorator's power,
corrected and improved by his colouring and treatment.

The Bedrooms will also engage, the same kind of attention.
Their treatment must be cleanly, airy, and cheerful, not too
insistent, and forming a good contrast to the staircase and
landings. Purity of tint and freshness of colour will attain this
end. The free ventilation must not be interfered with by
cooping up windows. The surface of the walls must not be too
absorbent. The size and paste used should be deodorised and
sterilised by the addition of a little carbolic a;id, essence of
cloves, or some other similar purifier. All traces of minute
fungus growths must be removed by thoroughly washing the
walls. Musty and mouldy odours must be traced and their causes
removed. In this connection it is well to remember that all

10 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

cupboards should be ventilated. Tlie painted work must be
made easily washable, and all crevices likely to hold dust or to
encourage moth or insect life should be scrupulously rilled up.
Patterns of disturbing element and pronounced line, or of an
angular tendency, should be discarded.

In the Children's Nursery or Bedrooms all these points need
more emphatic attention, and especially the matters of colour
and surface finish. A sanitary paper which can be sponged, or
something equally durable and washable, should run up as high as
the hands of the children can reach. Enamel or varnish finish is
best for the wood-work. White or light wood-work that shows
finger marks and dirt will have an educational value which will
repay the trouble of occasionally sponging them off and lead to the
use of handles and finger plates, besides having a cheerful and
purifying effect on the senses. The presence of plenty of white
surface in the nursery enables the eye to discern colour, improves
the sight, temperament, and digestion, stimulates the exercise of
the muscles, and materially improves the circulation of the
blood and general health, especially if it be judiciously present
in conjunction with pure tints and cheerful bits of good
colouring. This fact has long been recognised on the Continent
and applied to the manufacture of toys, and is being more and
more acknowledged and acted upon by scientists and medical
men. This subject will receive more attention in a later
chapter.

Economy in Working. — The relation between real economy
and fitly applied decoration has already been noticed in its
bearing upon the client. It is equally important to note that
economy of procedure has an important bearing on the workman,
and is directly dependent upon the use of method, order, and clean-
liness. This will be shown in detail as each part of the work
involved is discussed, but the present place is most suitable for
general remarks on this important aspect of house painting.
Haphazard work — the taking of things as they come, and the
absence of a specific order of procedure — is responsible for dis-
satisfaction, loss of time, the breaking of engagements, and often
bankruptcy ; but what more concerns us at present is that it is
absolutely impossible to obtain good results in workmanship
without attention to these points. The following short rules
will, therefore, perhaps be found helpful : —

The best order in which to carry on the various parts of the
work, so that each portion is prevented from exerting any
damaging effect upon that which is previously finished, must be
studied. The work must be so arranged that dust is absent

^^/^^^/^^^y^^^i^^^^^^^$^^^^

Plate 2. -DECORATION OF HOUSE-FRONT ABOVE SHOP.
To face p. 10.]

THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 11

when wet paint is about, that paint is dry when papering is
being done, that floors are not wet when we are varnishing, and
that many other similar contretemps are avoided. Rooms must
be finished in such order that it is not necessary to carry on work
in them, or traffic through them, after they are completed. The
work should commence, in theory, at the farthest point from the
front door, and be completed in due sequence, until the painter
finds himself outside.

The external painting of windows, &c, should be done before
the inside of the room is finished.

In painting a room the work that involves the use of steps,
&,c, should be done first.

Cleanliness in Working, — Then comes the great question of
cleanliness in working. All fittings should be carefully covered
or removed before commencing work, and not after they are
already soiled. There should be no unnecessary moisture put
on the floors in stripping walls or washing down, even though
apparently it can do no harm. Splashes and spots must be
avoided, even though the floors at e covered up, and the hands
and clothes kept religiously free from paint.

Trade and Health.— As an occupation, the painter's is one
of the healthiest in the building trades, providing only that
moderate cleanliness is observed in person and habits. It has
been proved beyond doubt that the volatile products given off
by oils, &c, used in painting are not only innocuous, but
beneficial. That white lead in particles does not mingle with
the air we breathe ; that the smell arising even from the use of
arsenical colours is equally non-poisonous; and that the only
possible methods of introducing painters' poisons into the system
are through the pores of the skin by the totally unnecessary
handling of the pigments, and through the mouth by eating food
with painty hands, are all facts well known to scientists.

Causes of Bad Health among Painters. — There are a few
prevalent favourite methods of useless " self-sacrifice " that may
be here noted.

First, the use of tools and brushes with unclean handles,
by which the paint on the handle is deliberately forced into the
pores of the skin of fingers and hands. There is no excuse for
this dirty, but common, practice. The handles should be scraped
clean with a sharp bit of glass or a steel scraper, working from
the bristles, and should then be coated with knotting.

Second, the filthy habit of putting the hands into colour when
mixing, a habit as unnecessary and absurd as any in the trade, but
clung to by ancient and thoughtless practitioners as a sort of fetish.

12 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Third, the use of the finger and thumb nails in lieu of a knife
for scraping off spots of white lead and other matters, frequently
followed by biting the nails.

Fourth, and perhaps most prolific of danger, the use of white
lead putty, and stopping with the hands instead of with a knile
and stopping board.

Fifth, the rubbing down of white lead filling in a dry con-
dition, with consequent inhalation of dust.

Sixth, a general aversion to soap and water, and sometimes
the substitution therefor of turps and oil, which serve the better
to convey the poisonous particles into the perspiratory system.

These points will mostly come up for discussion later, but
deserve a place at the front, hence their mention here.

Clients' Requirements. — In conclusion, it must not be
supposed that the painter will always find it possible to give
the rein even to his rightly-guided instinct in matters of taste and
detail. Clients' requirements have to be studied, as well as the
personal prejudices of the untrained.

The wise painter, therefore, has to find a via media betwixt
what he believes to be the correct treatment and what his client
requires, and will best consult his own interests and those of
his client by bringing the one into harmony with the other — that
is, by doing what his client actually requires in what he knows to
be the best way, rather than by endeavouring to press his own
views too persistently, always remembering that in matters of
mere technique it is due to his self-respect to have his own
way.

Plate 3.- PANELS DESIGNED FOR NATURALISTIC COLOUR TREATMENT.
To face p. 12.]

CHAPTER II.

is necessary to deal briefly with the
accommodation requisite for workshop
and stores, and the manner of arranging
and managing them to the best advan-
tage.

The class of premises used, the par-
ticular exigencies of town and country
work and available space, and the
various classes of business involved, all
serve to make it impossible to admit of precise
description ; but in so far as the practices recom-
mended here will be based upon, and assume the
| existence of efficient accommodation, it is perhaps
as well to detail what may be regarded as quite
necessary, and to indicate the more important
desiderata in a well regulated establishment.
Economy of Proper Storage Boom. — In
the first place, it will be desirable to have two separate shops
and an additional store room for materials; which will be called,
respectively, the paint shop, the painting room, and the stores.
A paved and covered yard or shed should be retained for the

14 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

plant and appliances, as it is important that ladders, poles, and
planks should be kept dry. As indicating the importance of
small matters of this kind, it can be shown that many tons a
year are saved upon the cartage account of a large establishment
by the use of a covered place for storage of planks and poles.
On one occasion a large consignment of scaffolding was sent from
London to a church in the country in a wet and sodden state.
After standing in the dry for some weeks it was re-consigned to
London, and the difference in cost for carriage was nearly two
pounds sterling. In many such ways the adoption of careful,
methodical, and orderly ways of managing a business conduces
to the saving of money.

The Paint Shop. — The paint shop must be quite 24 feet long
by 14 feet wide, and a room of this proportion will be found
more convenient, if properly lighted, than a squarer form of
shop.

Position. — It should be on the ground floor, for the con-
venience of taking in heavy goods, and generally facilitating the
removal of material in and out.

Lighting. — It must be well lighted; this is an absolute
necessity, and may be regarded as of the very first importance.
In the winter months, gas, or artific:al light of some kind, will
be requisite. A T pendant in the centre, and a couple of side
brackets will suffice, fitted with good incandescent burners.
An ideal shop should have side lights all along the north side.
Roof and sky lights are an abomination, as besides the danger
of breakage by stones or hail, experience proves that wet and
dust at times will come in, and that spiders and flies have a
particular partiality for dropping from them. But more to the
purpose, the direct skydight, changing as it does in character
from hour to hour, is deceptive and difficult to work under if
making and matching tints. It is too glaring and strong to be
a comfortable working light. The north is the best side for
lights if it can be so arranged ; and if these are set at a slight
angle out of the perpendicular — viz., the lower portion of the
sashes set out 4| to 6 inches further than the tops, the lighting
can hardly be improved upon. The sashes can be hinged at the
top, and open outwards for ventilat'on.

Must he Dry. — The shop must be a dry one, as many materials
deteriorate if kept in a damp atmosphere.

Water. — A supply of water will be required, with sink and
waste.

Heating Arrangements. — A gas stove or fireplace in a safe
corner. A shut-in stove is safest, but the danger of fire, if

WORKSHOP AND STORES. 15

ordinary care is used, is more remote than at fir.st appears, as
but few of the ordinary materials are inflammable without actual
and purposeful ignition. The fireplace or gas stove will be
required for heating water, size, glue, paste, &c, and should be
large enough and strong enough to hold a glue kettle or a
3-gallon bucket.

Ceiling. — The ceiling, if there is a room above, must be dust-
tight, and not mere open joists and ordinary floor-boards, or the
dust will percolate through, and the colours will need continual
straining.

Colouring. — It should be white in colour, to assist the light.
The floor should be of stone or concrete. It is immaterial
whether the walls be of feather-edge board or brick, so long as
they are solid and dust-tight. They are whitened, as, though
there will be little of them seen, it is as well to get all the
additional light that can be reflected from them.

Fittings and Furniture. — The fittings necessary will be strong
shelves, a cupboard or two, and strong benches.

First, a long bench under the windows, about 2 feet 8 inches high
and 2^ feet wide, with stout supports, will be the mixing bench.
It should be furnished with three paint stones. These may be
slabs of Purbeck or other hard even-grained marble, or French
burrstone, without flaws, about 2 feet square and l.j inches
thick. One of the three may be smaller, and of white marble,
for use for fine bits of colour. A cheaper substitute for a marble
slab is a sheet of stout plate glass set in white lead to make it
solid. To keep it in place, a fillet of wood luay be screwed to the
bench on each side. This will also protect it from being chipped.
Rough cast plate will do if levelled by rubbing with coarse
emery and another piece of thick glass till an even surface is
produced. The front edge of the stones should be set level with
the edge of the bench. A muller will be required for each stone,
as, although every colour can be purchased ready ground for use,
the good workman will often prefer to grind his own in special
mediums for special jobs, and is not always satisfied with the
degree of fineness attained in the paint mill. It is also unneces-
sary to keep such a comprehensive stock when the means for
grinding up a bit of special colour are handy and familiar.
Beneath each stone there should be a drawer for material for
cleaning the bench. Cotton waste or odd rags are used for this
purpose, but the most efficacious and most lasting material, one
which never seems full of paint, and which does not ignite if
heated by long confinement in the drawer, is a material known
in the old-fashioned trade as " shreds." Whether commercial

16 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

and economical development has or has not driven it out of the
market at a price within the painters' scope for such a purpose is
uncertain, but of its absolute efficacy and cleanly application and
power of absorption there is no doubt. It was obtained from
curriers, and appeared to be the dressings or scrapings from the
interior sides of the coarser hides. Cotton rags or waste, when
saturated with oil, are a fruitful source of fires by spontaneous
combustion, and should be shunned unless they can be cleared
out periodically under skilled supervision.

Colours, Driers, Oils, &c, required on Paint Bench. — The space
at the back of the stone will be the place for small kegs of
tinting colours available for use wdien mixing. Ochres, Umbers,
Sienna, Venetian and Indian reds, red lead, vegetable black, and
Prussian blue should be kept there, within easy reach of the
hand. Space between the stones at the back will accommodate
patent driers and white lead, of which a small keg should lie
specially set apart for the same purpose, as the frequent dipping
of palette knives into the large casks is liable to soil the contents
and disturb them unnecessarily. Upon the paint-mixing bench
we shall also require small hand cans, spouted for pouring, to
hold raw and boiled oil, terebine, turpentine, and a generally
useful varnish for adding to colour. Plenty of room must be
left between the paint stones for standing and straining the
colours that are being made up.

Drawers to Paint Bench for Tools. — Narrow drawers between
the paint-stone drawers will be useful to hold the mixing or
palette knives, a piece or two of pumice stone for cleaning off
any hard spots that dry upon the stone, and for occasionally
cleaning down the stone thoroughly in addition to the general
wiping down after use, a few clean rags, pieces of straining
muslin of different degrees of fineness and string, also a hammer,
tacks, a screw-driver, shears or large scissors, a cork screw, a»
cask opener, a case opener, odd corks and bungs, taps for racking
off the oil and turps, and many other odds and ends that
experience will dictate.

Palette Knives for Paint Stone. — There should be a pair of
palette knives to each stone, of from S to 12 inches long in the
blades, for different quantities of colour.

To Clean Paint Stone. — A word may be interposed here on the
method of cleaning down the slabs after use. Expert handling of
the palette knives will leave the stone almost clean enough to dine
from, but it may be stained by strong colours, as Prussian blue ;
or varnish or turps colour may stick near the edges. To
thoroughly clean, put a little whiting on the stone and rub it up

Plate 4.— PANELS DESIGNED FOR FLAT NATURALISTIC COLOURING.
To face p. 16.]

WORKSHOP AND STORES.

in a little raw linseed oil, work it over the surface with the
muller as if grinding colour ; collect and take it up with the
knives, and put it into the keg reserved for odd bits of light
colour. This will leave stone, knives, and muller all clean, and
a wipe over with the " shreds," or a rag, or cotton waste does
the rest.

Brush Trays. — On the bench near the stones a place must be
set apart for the brushes. A tray of zinc, divided into sections
by bars across the top, and large enough to hold the number of
brushes generally in use, must be provided. It should be
5 inches deep, so that the brushes may be suspended in the
water and not rest on the bottom.
This is accomplished by boring
holes through the handle or stock
of the brushes or tools, and slipping
a piece of steel wire through the
hole, the ends of which will rest
upon the divisions of the tray. The
holes must be bored at a height
which will permit the whole of the
bristles to be in the water. A
tinned tray or an iron one will
rust and corrode. Zinc is the best
material, as it can be easily scraped
free from paint, and will withstand
the action of water, turps, or oil.
A smaller tray may be provided for
brushes kept in oil.

In putting away the brushes, it
is well to scrape as much paint as
possible out of them and rinse them
in turps, otherwise the water will
cause the oil in the paint to congeal
and become "furred" in the brushes.

Brush Washer or Smutch-can. — For the purpose of washing
the brushes, smutch-cans or rinsers will be necessary. A double
galvanised or tinned iron kettle made as in Fig. 1 will be a good
form. The inner kettle has a bottom of perforated copper or
copper gauze, the top edge is sufficiently sharp to scrape the
edge of the brushes or to free them from excess of turps, and
overhangs to prevent splashing. The perforated bottom allows
all solid matter to pass through and settle, and prevents it from
working up again. After scraping the brushes out on the stone,
thoroughly rinse them in the turps in the smutch-can. It is

Fig. 1 . — Skeleton elevation of
smutch-can. — A, Inner can. B,
Outer can. C, Mouth of inner
can. D, Sloping top of inner can
to prevent splashing. E, Filter
of perforated zinc to prevent
thick turps working up from
bottom. The turps will reach
up to the dotted line F.

]8 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

a good plan to have oue for preliminary rinsing, and a second
for cleaner turps. To thoroughly rinse, whirl the brush round
in the turps, by spinning the handle between the palms of the
hands. To free it from turps, do the same thing, but keep
the brush higher so that it does not touch the turps. A further
spinning in an empty can or keg will leave the brush almost
dry, in which condition it is safe to put it into the water tray.
Varnish brushes may be treated in a similar way before being
stood in oil, but they will be fully dealt with under the heading
of brushes.

Zinc Covering for Paint Bench. — The spaces between the paint
stones, if covered with stout zinc, will be kept much cleaner,
and scrape and clean down more readily than if left in the bare
wood. Stout No. 11 gauge zinc will be suitable; allow the
zinc to go under the stones, dress it square over the edge of the
bench, and nail to the edge.

Ready-made Colours. — -All colours that it is possible to make
up at the shop should be sent to the job ready for use, except
thinning, but of course this only applies to jobs near the shop.

Large Kegs. — Under the paint bench, a suitable place may
be found for large ke^s of coloui', casks of whitelead and driei's,
barrels of ochre and Umber, &c, from which the smaller kegs on
the paint bench are kept sujDplied.

Drawers for Powder Colours. — A nest of drawers will
be found truly economical for powder colours. The drawei's
should vary in size, and be easily pulled out; each drawer
should have an all-round solid partition dividing it from the
other drawers to prevent an inter-mixture of the colours. They
may have lids, but this is not material if the drawers are self-
contained. They should not be too large, as they can be
replenished frequently from the stock in stores. The great
advantage accruing from the use of drawers is, that the drawers
can be taken across to the stone or bench, thus avoiding the
carrying of dips of dry colour on the tip of the knife, and conse-
quent waste. Where the dry colours are kept in bulk in casks,
there is generally a series of coloured tracks on the floor between
the casks and the paint stone. Another gain is the cleanliness
and freedom from dust and grit in the colour. In sending dry
colour to a job, on no account send it in paper packages.
Tin canisters should be collected and set aside for the
purpose.

Weighing Machine and Scales.— A weighing machine for heavy
goods, and scales and weights for lighter packages, are necessary.
These should not only be in the shop, but their use should be

WORK-SHOP AND STORES. 19

insisted on, and all goods coming in or going out should be
weighed and entered.

Rough Day-book. — For this purpose a rough day-book should
be placed on a small desk in close proximity to the scales, and
near the door. This is not a manual on book-keeping, even for
painters, but it may be noted with emphasis that the initial
stage of book-keeping begins here. One book, always at hand,
fixed (like a chained Bible) if desired, must contain a record of
everything that goes in or out of the shop and stores. Material,
tools, plant, or objects to be, or that have been, painted, must
all be set down in the order they occur, with the date and name
of destination or derivation. The sorting off of these various
items is a matter for the clerks at a future stage.

Oil Tanks. — -In a place removed from the fire or stove, tanks
are required for the oils — one for raw linseed, and one for
boiled oil, and a couple for turps. It is generally the practice
to buy two kinds of turpentine. One, the best Russian; and
the other, American. Sometimes French is also stocked. These
should not be mixed, as they have special qualities which, if
kept separate, are valuable under different sets of circumstances.
The tanks should hold about 120 gallons each or more. Square
tanks take least room. Wood, zinc-lined, and with taps near
bottom, or galvanised iron are the best. The advantages of
large tanks are many. One is, that as the oil is generally new
it becomes matured by being stored in bulk for a little time.
Another, that by mixing the different consignments a more
uniform quality is maintained ; and another, that, the contents
of the barrels can be checked and examined when they are
racked ; there is thus an avoidance of much waste.

Whiting and Plaster Bins. — A large box or bin for the whiting
must be set in a dry corner, and smaller ones for the plaster and
Parian cement, mastic, and sand, Portland cement, &c. These
will occupy the further side of the shop. The centre part of
the floor may be taken up by the barrels of dry tinting colours
or other items of the kind.

"Pickle" Cask. — A place must be reserved for a cask of
"pickle" in which to throw the pots and cans which require
cleaning. This is made from potash, black ash, or caustic soda
and water, and must be strong enough to remove the paint,
but not so strong as to attack the metals of the cans as well as
the paint in them. Zinc cans must not be put into this solution,
or they will be dissolved. An old oil or turpentine cask may
be cut down to serve the pui'pose of a "pickle tub."

Smudge Keg. — Two casks should be retained to hold oddments
of paint smudge, and one to hold refuse and skins.

PAINTING AND DKCORATINO.

Flour Barrel. — A barrel to hold a sack of flour, with tight-
fitting lid, may be stored in a dry corner.

Shelves. — Strong shelves will be necessary at the ends and
back of the shop, sufficiently wide to hold paint cans, tins of
varnish, paint in use, and other matters. The bottom shelf may
be a foot wider than the others, so as to serve for packing upon.
Never arrange hooks along edges of shelves. The practice
results in waste of time in removing the arti^es hung upon
them, prior to being able to take things from the shelf behind,
or in knocking down the objects from the hooks in the endeavour
to save the trouble of moving them. In reaching up to the
shelves, there is also danger of the hooks catching in the sleeves.
Do not have the shelves further apart than necessary for the
goods intended to be stored on them.

Fig. 2. — Paint mill.

Cupboard. — A cupboard may be retained for the brushes not
in use, and another for glasspaper, glue, concentrated size, special
colours, &c.

Pigeon Holes. — A set of pigeon holes to hold artists' colours
in large 1-lb. tubes (now so much sold for tinting purposes) will
be requisite, if there is much good work done in the shop. Each
hole should be plainly marked with the colour it contains.

Paint Mill. — A paint mill (Fig. 2) is desirable for grinding up
rough colour, making hard stopping, and other like purposes.

WORKSHOP AND STORES. 21

A small sized one, to hold about 28 lbs. of white lead, will be
sufficient. One constructed to grind on the cone principle, with
a side handle, can be easily screwed to one end of the paint
bench.

Other small conveniences will be mentioned under the various
headings for which they are required, and need not be specially
referred to here.

The Painting" Room. — The painting room will next be con-
sidered. This apartment is required for the purpose of working
in, as its name implies.

There are a large number of sina'd jobs which have to be done
in the shop, such as the painting of signs, the writing of facia
glasses and advertisement boards, the painting of fittings and
fui'niture, gilding, and other matters of a similar kind. There
are also many opei*ations which it would be better and more
profitable to do in the shop, which are at present muddled
through on the job for want of proper accommodation, such as
the decoration of material, the preparation of drawing pounces
and stencils, and priming of new work prior to fixing.

The size of the room should be larger than that of the paint
shop and of a similar shape. It must be well lighted and, pre-
ferably, in the same manner. A first-floor room above the
paint shop and stores would present many advantages over a
ground floor. The floor of the room should be of wood and the
walls and ceiling whitened. The remarks made as to the
character of the ceiling and the absence of sky-lights apply with
no less force in the painting room than in the paint shop.

Wall for Large Cartoons, &c. — One wall that is well lighted
will require to be boarded with close, flush-jointed boards of 1
inch in thickness, for the purpose of working painted canvasses,
banners, cartoons, or large drawings upon, or for the tacking-up
lengths of anaglypta or linoleum for decorating.

Benches and "Drawers. — Under the windows a fixed bench 01
convenient height may be placed, about 2 feet 8 inches high,
running the length of the room. It may be supported upon
pedestals of drawers for holding stencil plates and drawings,
pounces and cartoons. These drawers should be 3 feet 6 inches
long and the full depth of the bench from back to front, which
should be not less than 30 inches. Shorter drawers may be
arranged between these, allowing sufficient room for working at
the bench upon stools with the knees under it. They will be
required for a few materials, as gilding, writing, and stencilling
tools and materials, gold leaf and metals, bronzes, special colours,
gelatine, isinglass, cotton wool, and numerous articles of this kind.

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Reference Books. — A few books of reference and examples of
lettering may be usefully kept in them.

A bar from pedestal to pedestal may be fixed as a foot-rest.
Gas. — The gas brackets should be fitted to the window
frames, and have universal swivel joints to bend in any di-
rection. Shades made from tin, coloured white upon the inside
and green upon the outside (with Duresco — not paint), will be
required for writing and gilding in the winter evenings. The
shades must be removable.

Portable Benches. — Other benches will be required, but it is
convenient to have them portable, as at times the floor space
will be required for furniture, or even for setting out upon. It

is specially useful for planning
panelled ceilings, so as to
arrive at the exact templates
for stencils and pounces. The
benches will, therefore, take
the form of trestles and boards;
6 trestles of the form shown
in Fig. 3 will suffice. A piece
of 44-inch x 3-inch deal, 40
inches long, forms the top of
each, and three supporting legs
are halved into this, or, better
still, dovetailed at such an
angle that the legs stand 9
inches apart on the floor in
the clear, two on the outside
and one on the inside. The
boards are tongued and grooved; inch yellow deal boards upon
battens of the same thickness. They should be all about
40 inches wide, and differ in length from 15 feet to 5 feet.
There may be four or five of them. The battens should be
screwed on so that they can be easily taken off and re-clamped,
as they shrink or twist.

Paint Stone Muller and Knives. — A small paint slab — say
18 inches — circular, will be handy, provided with a glass
muller and a pair of 8-inch knives.

Sign-Writers' Easels. — For the convenience of sign- writing,
one or two common easels will be necessary. For heavy signs,
a good plan is to have a couple of primitive easels made as
follows : — Two 9-feet lengths of 3 inches by 1£ inches are
fastened together by battens nailed across at top and bottom,
leaving them a clear space 1| feet across, and forming a rectangu-

Fig. 3. — Portable bench trestle.

AV0RKSH0P AND STORES. 23

lar frame. In the long sides of this frame, f-inch holes are bored
for stout pegs of oak. These easels will lean against the walls
at any angle, and will hold any shape or proportion of sign,
as two or three of them can be used in conjunction. They are
also handy for lengths of lincrusta, which may be tacked to the
battens ; they are then easily stood in any position, and in front
of each other without rubbing.

Entrance Ways. — The room must have a sufficiently large
doorway to admit articles of furniture or large boards, and, if it
be an upper floor, it is best to have an outside staircase with
good large double doors at the top. If, on the other hand, a
small staircase exists indoors, there may be an arrangement of
casements, and a pulley block or crane above them, so that work
may be taken in and out with as little danger of damage as
possible.

Shelves. — A few shelves will be requisite, also a cupboard or
two to keep colour clean and free from dust, when in use from
day to day.

Heating. — A heating stove is necessai-y ; a close coke one
will be found safest and most convenient.

StorGS. — The next room for consideration is the store room,
or stores. It must be a dry room on the ground floor, in which
a fairly equable temperature of about 60° can be maintained.
If possible, it should adjoin the paint shop, so as to save time
and labour in transferring goods from one to the other. But
lit 'ile light is necessary ; indeed, for many materials, an excess
of light is undesirable.

Fittings. — The whole four sides of the room may be shelved
for .varnishes and japans, kegs of colour, and other items of
stock. A few drawers are desirable for small articles, sash
tools, stencil tools, sponges, leathers, &c. Brushes, dusters,
limers, and distemper brushes should be hung from the ceiling
in bunches of 3 dozens For this purpose, and to accommodate
new cans or kettles and buckets, the whole of the ceiling may be
fitted with rows of galvanised hooks, like those used by butchers
and in larders.

The upper shelves should be kept for articles requiring a
particularly di-y place. G-lasspaper, concentrated size, and glue
will come under this denomination, as will dry colours, lacquers,
and spirit varnishes, knotting, &c. Then below these will come
the oil varnishes, japan, stainers, enamels, &c, and below these
the oil colour's and colours ground in water, and heavier goods.
On the floor, which should be of stone or concrete, we place the
heaviest goods — casks of white lead, driers, Umber, and ojhre,

24 PAINTING AND OKCOtlATlNG.

barrels of oils and turps, firkins of powder colour, and kegs of
Duresco, paint-remover, and other like matters.

Use. — The stores should be used for goods in unbroken
packages only. Each particular article should be represented in
the paint shop as well as in the stores. If this is done, the value
of the stock can be much more readily ascertained. In the
stores only whole packages are retained, rendering stocktaking
easy.

The stock in use in the paint shop consists entirely of partly-
used packages, which, it is safe to assume, are upon an average
half full. As the assortment of goods in use in the paint shop
will not materially vary, it can always be taken to be "as before,"
the real difference in value being in the actual stores.

Keturn of Empty Packages. — As each cask or package is
emptied of its contents it must be headed and hooped up and
set aside for sending back to the manufacturer, and as soon as a
sufficient quantity is got together to make a consignment, they
should be despatched. This should be done at least once a
quarter.

Storing of Parts of Cases. — A bin under the paint shop bench
can be reserved for lids, heads, and portions of packing-cases
that have to be removed and ultimately returned, as, if the shop
is kept properly clean and the goods are to be easily got at,
these will not be required during the use of the contents, except
in special cases where it is desirable to exclude the air from the
contents.

Putting* up Material for a Job. — A word or two m^ fitly

be added here on sending material to a job. All jobs repeat
themselves to a greater or less degree. A general list may,
therefore, be made of the materials usually required, to be
supplemented as occasion demands. It may be divided under
the heads of outside painting, inside painting, paper-hanging,
and distempering.

All the usual tinting colours should always be included, as it
is not possible to know exactly what may be required. If the
lists are printed ones, a large column may be left, for filling in
the quantities of each article. In making out the list it will
only be necessary to mark one or two articles, as the others will
follow in proportion. Thus, the quantity of whitelead for an
inside job will govern the quantity of staining colours, oil,
driers, turps, terebine, putty, and glass paper, unless under the
existence of special conditions.

In these special cases the list could be marked first for the
normal and afterwards for the extra quantity of any given

WORKSHOP AND STOKES. 25

article. Thus, if the bulk of the painting were white and the
job would take 2 cwts., the list would be marked for ^ cwt., which
wo'dd carry the necessary amount of et ceteras, and in the extras
column it would be again marked 1J cwts. whitelead extra,
which would infer extra thinnings, but no extra stainers.

Or, again, a job requires extra quantities of Indian red and
black, the whitelead entry would carry a certain amount of
each as stainers and the extra column would ask for, say, 14 lbs.
black extra and 28 lbs. Indian red extra, which would infer the
extra oil necessary for them.

The great value of having a set form or general list is that,
by this method, small items are not forgotten. Such items as
varnishes, papers, &c, must, of course, be particularised.

Despatch of Material for a Job. — The storekeeper or paint
shop clerk, who superintends the sending out of stuff, must keep
a stock of necessaries ready to hand for prompt despatch. A
supply of clean pots and cans should also be always in hand.
Empty bottles and jars should be stored in an odd corner, and
when returned dirty must be at once put into the pickle and
allowed to clean themselves.

Management Of Paint Shop.— Before leaving the subject,
it is as well to deal briefly with the economic side of the paint
shop management.

Waste. — A considerable amount of waste is the unwitting
result of ignorance and thoughtlessness, but the direct waste in
this way is even less than the waste of labour and the unsatis-
factory results of injudicious attempts at economy.

Returned Residuum Paint. — On every job, however well it
may be regulated, there will be a certain amount of residuum.
This does not always depend upon the skill with which the job
is managed, but is frequently due to the character of the job in
hand. The less varied the class of work in a given job, the
more likelihood will there be of a large amount of waste colour.
In a job of mixed character there will be plenty of opportunities
for using up the odds and ends. An inside job of painting, if it
be confined to the principal rooms, will of necessity result in this
overplus, and unless it be intelligently dealt with on its return
to the shop it will be wasted or worse than wasted.

Fat Colour and Smudge. — Paint, after being thinned for use
with a proper quantity of driers and spirits, soon becomes
partially oxidised, and, consequently, viscid and greasy. This
is partially due to the exposure to the atmosphere, with the
consequent loss of the more volatile portions of the oils and the
rapid absorption of oxygen ; and partly to the chemical action

'2G TAINTING AND DECOliATING.

of the added driers, and sometimes of the pigments upon each
other. This explains why paints sold prepared ready for im-
mediate use seldom prove satisfactory, even it of tolerably good
quality as far as the ingredients go. Such paint is technically
known as "fat." Fat colour has thus lost some of its power of
hardening, is bad in drying, and most readily softens under
ordinary heat. In practice it will be difficult to spread, and,
consequently, more turpentine is added, which, when evaporated,
leaves behind it further resinous matter, so that the amount
of gummy matter in the paint is more than necessary for the
binding and cohesion of the pigment, and prevents it hardening
off. Most of the returned colour that comes to the paint shop
will be of this character, and the larger part of it will probably
be colour that has been mixed with a large quantity of tur-
pentine, which, when fat, is more unmanageable than fat oil
colour.

It will be perceived from these remarks that "fat" colour
in the condition in which it is returned is only available for the
very roughest of outside work. Even when treated, it is not
capable of so hardening as to make it a safe paint for work
likely to be much handled, or for work which is situated in
direct sunlight. It will not dry dead or flat.

Salvage of Fat Colour and Smudge. — The method recommended
for putting it to the best use is to first throw it together in
kegs kept for the purpose — one for light tints, one for medium
tints, and one for dark shades. All blues should be kept to-
gether separately, as the addition of blues will render the other
warm tints useless. It must be allowed to settle, and a lid
placed over it to retard "skinning." The tops may then be
skimmed off and used for grinding up with common dry colours
for outside painting, a little turpentine being added to free the
"fat" oils.

The bottoms or settlings will be useful for priming, if thinned
with turpenline, excepting for very good work or for first coating
new plaster or stucco, painting rough unwrought timber, or
rough brick walls, outside painting under eaves and outhouses,
&c, always bearing in mind that it must be thinned with
turpentine, as there is already a plethora of oils present.

Thinnings for Smudge.— For thinning all "fat" colour, the
cheaper grades of turpentine and substitutes for the same are
even better than the best commercial turps, because they
volatilise more completely, and leave less resinous gum be-
hind ; for new paints, however, they are useless, as the absence
of this resin means absence of binding properties. In the fat

Plate 5.— PANELS DESIGNED FOR FLAT POLYCHROMATIC COLOURING.
To face p. 26.]

WORKSHOP AND STORES. 27

colour there is already enough binding medium, and all that is
required is a thinner, to enable the paint to be spread easily
and evenly, which, after fulfilling this purpose, volatilises
rapidly, leaving little or no residuum.

The same quality, or absence of quality, fits these commoner
spirits, for the purpose of brush washing. They are more
penetrating and solvent in their action than a good turpen-
tine, and where turps is given as the best medium for cleaning
certain brushes, cheap grade turps may be used with advantage.

Prevention of Skinning and Hardening of Stock Colours. — It
should not be necessary to point out that all waste caused by
allowing colours in their paste form to harden or skin over is
easily pveventible. All that is required is to effectually keep
the air from them. For zinc oxide, sulphide, or Other paste
colours ground in oil, the colour should be pressed level and a
little pure raw linseed oil poured upon the top. The oil must
not be permitted to become mixed up with the colour. In taking
colour from the keg it should be sliced out with a small trowel
or similar tool, and not dug out of the middle with the point of
the knife. As little oil as will cover the colour should be used,
not over half-an-inch in depth, and it may be occasionally changed.
Some prefer to use boiled oil or nut oil for the purpose. If the
colour remain open for a length of time before getting used up,
the lids may be kept over the kegs. They ought also to be
kept over all rapidly-drying colours. Certain colours are better
bought in collapsible tubes, which we shall refer to in 'a later
chapter.

Colours ground in turps may be kept in condition by turpen-
tine, used in the same way as oil for oil colours, but changed
more frequently to prevent "fattening." Water colours may be
preserved by covering with water to which a little glycerine has
been added.

Whitelead. — Whitelead and patent driers are very usually
kept under water. If great care is exercised and the water is
not allowed to get locked up in the lead by carelessness in taking
out portions of lead, it is not objectionable, but, unless the lead
is of very stiff and putty-like consistency, there is a danger of
the water getting beaten into the whitelead. When water is
used, the lead, when required, must be well patted and knocked
about on the paint stone, to drive out the water, before any
thinners are added to it.

Conservation of Tube Colours. — Tube colours, if used very
seldom, have a tendency to become "fat "and "leathery." If
they are kept in a canister or elsewhere shut in from the air,

28 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

they will remain longer in good condition. Crimson lake has a
bad tendency to become " leathery " independent of external
conditions, but even this is retarded by keeping the tube in a
jar of water.

Stock Articles Enumerated.— it will be advantageous to

here mention the articles required for stock in a small shop. The
various articles will be fully described under the heading of
materials, and are merely enumerated here to give an idea of the
relative quantities required of each for an average class of
business.

List of Stock Required.

}, ton of white lead, and \ ton of zinc white.

1 cwt. patent driers, {, cwt. zinc driers.

2 barrels turpentine.

1 barrel boiled linseed oil.
1 ,, raw linseed oil.

6 gallons terebine.
6 ,, patent knotting.

Oil Colours.
1 cwt. ochre in oil.
1 ,, burnt Umber in oil.
4 ,, raw Umber in oil.
4 ,, Indian red in oil.
4 ,, Venetian red in oil.
14 lbs. Prussian blue in oil.
28 ,, vegetable black in oil.
23 ,, Oxford ochre in oil.
28 ,, raw Sienna in oil.
28 ,, burnt Sienna in oil.
28 ,, lemon chrome in oil.
14 ,, orange chrome in oil.

Putty, Pumice Stone, Cements, <kc.

1 cwt. linseed oil putty.
q ,, lump pumice stone.
14 lbs. pumice stone powder.
1 ream of glass paper assorted, one half being No. 1|.

1 ton whiting.

5 cwts. plaster Paris.

2 ,, Parian cement.

2 ,, Portland cement.

2 ,, oil mastic.

\ ,, dry whitelead.

1 ,, dry red lead.

1 cwt. dry ochre.

4 ,, dry Venetian red.

Dry Colours.

WORKSHOP AND STORES. 29

£ cwt. burnt Turkey Umber.
28 lbs. dry lime blue.

7 ,, common ultramarine.
14 ,, emerald green.
14 ,, lemon chrome.
14 ,, vermilion.
14 ,, Indian red.
14 ,, lamp black or drop black.

7 ,, mahogany lake.

7 ,, drop black ground in turps.

7 ,, Vandyke brown ground in oil.

7 ,, ,, ,, .,, water.

7 ,, burnt Umber in water.

7 ,, ,, Sienna in water.

7 ,, blue black.

7 ,, raw Sienna.

3 „ each sundry fancy colours in dry powder and 1 lb. tubes of fancy
oil colours, as lakes, best blues, yellows, Terra Verte, &c, to
be added as required.

Sundries.
14 lbs. sugar of lead.
14 , , litharge.
1 sack good rye flour for paste.
1 cwt. concentrated size.
28 lbs. best glue.
1000 best deep gold leaf, one-half transferred, and the other in plain

books.
1000 silver leaf.

1 lb. bronze powders, assorted.
2000 aluminium leaf.

3 gallons lacquers assorted.
14 lbs. oil gold size.
6 gallons japanners' gold size.

Varnishes.

20 gallons good outside oak varnish.
20 ,, ,, inside ,,

5 ,, best pale copal ,,

5 ,, best pale carriage ,,

20 ,, common hard oak varnish.
1 ,. each of maple, white copal, encaustic, flatting, and cthei

special varnishes.
3 , , best black Japan in quarts.
3 ,, Brunswick black in quarts.

6 ,, each of ivory, snow-white, and flat white enamels.

Sundries.
300 paint cans.
200 „ pots.

Brushes as required.
5 cwts. each of Duresco and distemper white.
2 ,, liquid Duresco.

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

1 cwt. peacock blue Duresco.
1 ,, lemon yellow.
1 ,, bright red.

(These will make most tints, but if special tints are required in
any quantity they had better be ordered ready-made.)
1 ,, laminated lead in sheets.
5(i lbs. filling-up powder, and 1 cwt. alabastine opalia.
1 cwt. paint remover.

Lamp for burning off paint.
1 dozen paint and distemper strainers.
1 cwt. of a good paint remover, such as Pyrol.

This will form a useful and sufficiently varied stuck from which to carry
out any ordinary jobs.

Purchase of Stock. — Unless for very large businesses it is the
better plan to purchase each article as required irrespective
of the rise and fall of the market, and it is hardly necessary to
enforce the truism that in all departments the best is really the
cheapest. Of course, every rule has its exception, and there
may be times when it is provident to buy more largely of a
particular material, but the master-painter should not go out of
his way to speculate on the rise and fall of values. A thing
is not cheap if there is not a fairly immediate use for it. It
is not necessary to say more on this head here, as it will be
dealt with in detail under materials.

CHAPTER III.

|1IE plant and appliances required by
painters are largely the same as those
needed by other branches of the
building trade ; and the treatment
of this branch of the subject will
be little more than an enumeration
of, and a specification of, the principal
items.

Ladders. — Ladders come first, both
in order of importance and in cost.
The form slightly varies in different
parts of the country. The ladder
best constituted to meet the demands
of the general house painter is formed from the two halves of a
sound fir pole, lightened down to a size just sufficient to bear the
strain of its length. The staves or rounds, sometimes called
" rungs," are of ash, oak, or hickory; and for painters maybe placed
10 inches apart from centre to centre. At each ten staves or so, a
wrought-iron bolt is inserted, either below or through the stave,
and secured by washers and nuts or rivetted over, on the outside
of the ladder. Sometimes an iron stave half to three quarters of

32 PAINTING AND PECORATINO.

an inch thick is substituted for the oak stave at intervals ; in
either case the object is to hold the sides of the ladder together.
The width of the ladder between the staves is to some extent
regulated by its height, but at the top they must be just wide
enough to allow a man to stand with both feet side by side
easily. Ladders for general builders are heavier, and the staves
are placed more closely together to facilitate the easy ascent
with heavy weights. Ladders are required of various lengths,
ranging from 10 feet to 60 feet. The most generally useful
are from 24 to 40 rounds long. A good ladder should have
plenty of spring in it, and both sides should give equally,
forming a perfect curve when suspended by its two ends, the
curve, of course, being less sharp at the foot end of the ladder
than at the top.

Selection. — Of two ladders of equal length, the lightest should
be preferred, other points being equal ; as in the painting trade
no great strain is put upon the ladders. In selecting a ladder,
buy it before it is painted, and look for straightness of grain and
solidity of wood to the heart. Avoid pithy centred wood or
wood that is sappy, in the outer rings especially. Notice that
the holes are clean bored for the staves, that the staves fill them
properly, and that in wedging the staves the side has not been
split or shaken.

Mode of Using. — When a ladder is too short for a particular
purpose, it is sometimes spliced by lashing another ladder to it.
This is done either while the ladders are on the ground, when
it is a comparatively simple matter, or after the first ladder has
been reared up.

In the first method the long ladder is placed upon the ground,
and the shorter one laid upon it. At least six rounds should
be covered. The bottom stave of the top ladder should then
be firmly lashed to the sixth slave from the top of the lower
ladder, and the cords carried up the sides round each stave,
bringing the sides of the two ladders firmly together, working
over each round to prevent the top ladder slipping, and finishing
off by lashing the top stave of the lower ladder to the sixth
from bottom of the top one. The lashing must be repeated in
an exactly similar manner, so as to obtain equality of tension
and spring. Strong flax sash cord are better than scaffold ropes
for splicing, as they take less room and leave the rounds clear
of encumbrance.

In use, the spliced ladder should be placed so that the top
ladder is beneath the lower one — that is, the position in which
they are laid on the ground is reversed. If this is done there

mMk

H %- ill ^ in #- «i # ii

Plate 6.— SELECTION OF CONTRAST IN PAPER HANGINGS.
To face p. 32.]

PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 33

is no obstacle to the ascent, and no trap to catch the unwary
when descending, both of which faults occur if the top ladder is
in front of the lower one. Another advantage is, that all knots
are on the underside, out of the way.

Ladders should be painted with boiled oil. The addition of
red or white lead adds materially to the weight. The oil is the
true preservative element in paint, and any light pigment may
be added merely to give distinctiveness without needlessly adding
to the weight of the ladder. In common with all plant, ladders
should be lettered with the name and address of the owner, both
for the sake of easy recognition and for advertisement. They
should be branded with a hot iron on every 10 feet, for protec-
tion, as the painted name can easily be obliterated. In addition,
ladders and steps should always be numbered. This simplifies
entering and aids identification.

London painters probably possess the best and longest ladders
in the Kingdom. The London form of painter's ladder combines
the maximum strength with the minimum weight. Many in use
in the West of London are 80 feet in length.

In raising and lowering long ladders considerable variance of
procedure exists. The methods are necessarily changed by
change of circumstances. Whenever possible a ladder fall or long
rope should be used, both for the sake of safety and economy.
It is let down from a window or roof, and one end is fastened
round the top stave of the ladder. The end of the ladder is
placed against the wall, a curb, or is "footed" by a couple of
men, and the man at the top hauls in the rope. As soon as the
ladder is up, the two men at the foot can guide it into position.
A ladder of any length can be easily raised by three men in this
way, and an ordinarily long ladder by two. In raising such a
ladder without the fall or rope at least four men will be necessary.
The two shortest and heaviest men should always foot the ladder,
or, if it can be set against a curb, one will suffice at foot. When
partly up, the amount of leverage exerted by the long end of the
ladder is considerable. The use of a shorter ladder as a crutch
to take the weight while the men shift positions or rest is often
resorted to in the case of very long or heavy ladders. The fact
that by this means a man can reach so much higher than the
other men, gives him increased power over the weight and makes
his assistance trebly useful.

In connection with the use of ladders the following warnings
are necessary: — The ladder must be firmly set on both legs.
Both top ends must rest equally against the wall or other
support. The foot of the ladder must be at such distance from

34 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

the wall, that when sprung by pressure upon itself it will not
recoil to a vertical position. If the ladder h;is more than thirty
rounds it. should be lightly secured by a cord at or near the top.
Seen in front elevation it should always be perpendicular. If
the ground is not level, one end must be wedged up to make
it so.

Ladder Brackets. — From ladders to ladder brackets is but a
step. There are several patterns, the simplest being the best.
One of the simplest consists of a Y-shaped iron, having the split
ends of the Y hooked, to clip the stave of the ladder. At the
bottom of the Y, or single end, is a ring and chain having a hook
at the end. It can be used either over or under the ladder, and
is merely hooked on the stave by the double end and the chain
hooked a few staves higher up in such a way that the Y-iron
forms a horizontal rest for the plank. Another simple form is a
fixed triangular bracket, the top of which forms a level bearing
for a plank. A turned up end prevents the plank from slipping
off, and the side of the triangle which rests against the ladder is
continued above the angle and provided with hooks by which it
is hooked over the staves of the ladder.

Preference should be given to those forms of plank supports
which do not depend upon the strength of one stave of the
ladder, and which have no loose working parts, as pins, &,c.

Scaffold Poles. — For scaffolding halls, public buildings, stair-
cases, ifcc, a few good scaffold poles are requisite. These should
range from 20 feet to 40 feet long. Fir poles are used for the
purpose. They should be straight, light, and free from large
shakes. A seasoned fir pole always contains a number of small
superficial cracks, but these should not extend into the wood
below the outer annular rings, and are not to be mistaken for
defects.

In selecting poles, notice that the butt end of the pole has
not been thinned down, but tapers naturally, gradually, and
regularly from butt to top, and that the pole is not too heavy
for its length. New poles should be barked, and all roughnesses
taken off with a spokeshave. It is a good plan to char the
bottom ends of painters' scaffold poles, and to well saturate the
top ends with boiled oil and red lead, as they get less use than
a general builder's poles, and this plan will preserve them.

Planks. — Planks are the next items of importance. Local
usages and prejudices prescribe many slight differences in
thickness, quality, and breadth.

A plank should be selected for its toughness, lightness, and
stiffness; a large amount of spring in a plank, although indi-

PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 35

Cative of strength and toughness, is an element of danger. A
springing plank on trestles will sometimes of its own action
and recoil close up and overthrow the trestles before attention
has been drawn to the fact that they were closing up. On the
other hand, a plank that will not bend is probably a cross-
grained one, and will snap off like a carrot if overweighted.
Good spruce is better than pine for planks it it be free from
large knots. Wood from small trees is the toughest for
ordinary work. One and a-half to 2 inches by from 9 inches
to 11 inches is a good thickness and breadth, and from 10 to
16 feet in length will be most useful. In selecting a plank,
choose a fir or spruce board in which the centre portion of the
board has formed the heart of the tree. Long knots running
transversely through the board near the ends are useful, as
they prevent the ends splitting, but on no account must these
knots occur near the centre of the board, or the board will snap
across at the knots when under pressure. The portion of the
board between the ends should be quite free from large knots.
If there are a number of small knots equally distributed so as
not to interfere with the free play or spring of the board, they
are of no consequence ; indeed, the board will wear better for
their presence.

Sometimes it is the practice to clamp the ends of planks with
hoop iron, to prevent splitting. This is a clumsy practice not
to be recommended for painters' planks. It makes the plank
unfit for use in a good house, as, when set down on end, it
scratches the floors. The irons are also dangerous to the hands
of the workman. They work loose, too, and sometimes trip a
man up or tear the clothes. If it be deemed necessary to
protect the ends against a tendency to split, a three-eighths of
an inch augur hole and a glued dowel in it through the board
3 inches from each end will do so. The corners should be
cut off, so that if the board is dropped on one end, it does not
get all the force of the blow on the extreme points, a thing
which often starts a board to split.

Scaffold Construction. — The subject of scaffold construction
will not be dealt with in the present work. It is usually left to
special hands, who have had special experience, and does not
come within the range of ordinary painters' work.

A few self-explanatory sketches of ties and knots which may
be of occasional use are, however, given here.

In Fig. 4, 1 and 2 represent the method of tying cross poles
or ledgers to uprights, back and front view ; 3 and 4, the
method of attaching slings to uprights to take a plank without

PAINTING AND DKCORATING.

ledgers, the plank resting in the slings, back and front view
given ; 5 is the method of tying two ropes together to make a
longer one, to use as a ladder fall or for haulage ; 6 and 7 show
the method of tying two uprights — viz., splicing poles — to add
to their height, back and front view ; 8 is the same for per-
manent scaffold, wedged and the ends tucked in ; G shows the

Fig. 4. — Heaffolding knots and ties.

appearance of this method when seen from the back ; 9 13 a
suspensory sling used for dropping the pole a stage lower than
the supporting ledgers; 10 and 11 show the hitch and half hitch
used for hauling poles and planks to the top of the scaffold, a
ready method that cannot slip. The technical names for these
knots differ with localities.

Trestles. — Trestles, or tressels, are double ladders hinged

PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 37

together at the top and arranged for use in pairs to support a
plank. Both sides of the trestle being equally available for use,
it is not the practice to insert staves on both sides at every step,
but to omit one alternately on each side, thereby proportionately
lightening and cheapening the construction.

A single trestle or ladder set upright in a fixed frame or
stand is used in the Midlands, but the extra thickness required
to make the trestle of sufficient strength, and the ungainly
shape of the stand at bottom, causes it to compare unfavourably
with the ordinary hinged trestle. This trestle cannot be used
apart from a plank, and is not easy to ascend and descend.

The trestles in common use appear generally to err on the side
of weight and clumsiness. If designed with a more scientific
knowledge of construction they might be equally safe and of
half the weight. They are frequently set out and made by an
ordinary carpenter in his slack time. If made in hard wood they
might be less cumbrous and would last longer. No staves,
except a stay bar, are required in the lowermost 2 feet, and for
high trestles staves 18 inches apart are quite close enough.
Some of the trestles and steps used in the north of England are
so substantial as to materially interfere with the view of the
general effect of the work in progress and the free movement of
the men. It occurs to the writer to mention here, as a companion
fault, that many decorators have their steps, &c, painted in such
a pronounced and assertive fashion as to interfere with one's
sense of colour and correct judgment. This should be avoided.
The top of the trestles should not be wider than will con-
veniently hold a wide plank; the bottom should slope out to
from 2 to 3 feet, according to the height of the trestle, so as to
give stability.

A form of trestle used on the Continent has much to recom-
mend it. It is especially steady in use; it leaves the wall clear
and impedes the worker less than the usual form. The sides are
made of ash, lance-wood, or hickory, and are curved to the well-
known Eddystone lighthouse form. The middle staves are thus
shorter and lighter, and the stability is retained. They are
hinged at the top in such a way as to be readily disconnected
and used singly as short ladders.

Trestles range in height from 6 to 20 feet, the generally useful
being from 8 to 10 feet.

Steps. — Steps, or step ladders, commonly referred to as a pair
of steps, a name generally misapplied, are so common as to need
little or no description here.

The fronts, or steps proper, consist of a couple of boards 3 or

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

4 inches wide and an inch thick, between which are set flat steps
about 9 inches apart, and at such an angle as to be horizontal
when the steps are in use. They are kept in position by a back,
consisting of two (3 inches by 1 inch) sides framed up to the neces-
sary width by tenoned rails and hinged to a fixed back piece at
the top. They are held open at the correct angle by cords pass-
ing from the back to the sides of front. Above all is a top board,

Fig. 5. — Steps.

lather broader and wider than the steps, but not necessarily more
than 6 inches in breadth.

The form and details of steps vary considerably. Fig. 5
shows a usual form. There are a number of patent patterns,
but when the wear and tear and other matters are taken into
account they do not appear to be equally serviceable to the

PL-ANT AND APPLIANCES. 39

painter. The old style steps can. be readily adapted to various
positions, spaces, and uses.

They should be of fine dry pine, light, with strong wrought-
iron hinges; the framing together must be strong and accurate
to stand the knocking about it is necessarily subjected to.
Strength and lightness combined should be the idea aimed at
in selecting a serviceable "steps." The hinges should be of
L-form, and fitted on the inside, so that there is no, strain on
them when the steps are in use. The edges of the top piece
and back should be shot on the bevel, so that when the steps
are open the weight is taken off the hinges. In practice, in
order to economise time, they are more often hinged on the
outside, so that all the weight falls upon the hinges, and
gradually loosens them. Steps are often made wider at the
top than is necessary ; 9 inches between the sides at the top
is quite wide enough ; the width at the bottom depending on
the height of the " steps."

Cords. — Scaffold cords are an important item, being costly
if purchased without proper consideration. Good hempen cord
prepared by saturation in Stockholm tar is to be preferred for
outside work. For indoor work lighter cords without tar are
preferable, especially for securing scaffolding to beams, columns,
and structural work. A cord made from a number of strands
is better than one made of a few. A cord % inch in diameter
is usually selected for ordinary scaffolding, but practice varies
according to the quality used, and a |-inch cord may be as
strong as an inch one. Thin cords are more easily manipulated,
and a fine quality |-inch cord will outlast a |-inch cheaper one.
Long cords for pulley blocks and ladder falls should not be so
tarred as to be stiff. From 50 to 100 feet is their usual
length. Tarred ropes must be used for scaffolding which has
to be left standing out of doors for months together.

Many special appliances are used in certain districts, and
are more or less peculiar to those districts, but our space will
not f.llow us to do more than just mention one or two of these.

Window Brackets. — Window or gal'ows brackets, to fit
on to sills and project over the thoroughfare sufficiently to allow
the painter to paint outside sashes, frames, and louvre shutters
or sun-blinds, are used in the south of England and in London
and the home counties. They are especially useful at seaside
resorts, where external sun-blinds are much used. In principle
they are merely large brackets ; the back of the bracket rests
against the wall outside ; the top plank extends into the room,
and a series of holes and pins, or a ratchet attachment, allows a

PAINTING AND UKCOKATING.

second back plank to be adjusted on the inside to the thickness
of the wall, which it grips immediately below the window.

Cradles. — Cradles or boats are suspended scaffolds for
lowering from the roof in narrow streets or busy thoroughfares,
thus replacing ladders. They are also useful in cases where
buildings overhang rivers, or where glass houses or abutting
buildings prevent the use of ladders. They consist of a broad
plank slung on iron hangers, with hand rails for protection. A
couple of poles are run out from the roof, and pulley blocks
rigged on their ends through which the suspending ropes are
worked. The loose ends of the ropes are carried down and are
under the control of the men using the cradle, who raise and
lower themselves as required.

Pulley Blocks. — Pulley blocks have already been referred to.
Single and double blocks are required. They are useful for
many purposes, as for taking stuff up to the top of the scaffold,
the erection of poles, and the erection and striking of scaffolding.

Paste Boards. — Paste boards and trestles are requisite for
the paperhangers. Paste boards are light ^-inch pine boards,
21 inches wide, for cutting and pasting upon. They are usually
made from two 11 -inch boards, each G feet long, hinged together
so as to fold for the convenience of carrying. The ends should

be tonsued with hard wood tongues.

Fig. 6. — Paperhanger's trestle.

A groove is cut into the
end grain of the board J?
inch wide, and an inch
deep, and a piece of oak or
ash glued into the groove.
The hinges should be brass
butts fixed with long fine
screws. This allows the
board to be used on both
sides, and the brass hinges
will not rust. Some
paste boards are made
with ledgered backs and
wrought - iron back flap
hinges, which are neither
so light nor so convenient.
If both sides are available
for use one side can be

use one side can
kept for pasting narrow work and oddments, and the other for
work which does not soil the board.

The trestles to hold the boards are made in several ways.
The best are small shut up trestles, in pairs; one for each end

PLANT AND APPLIANCES, 41

of the board, consisting of two light frames each hinged together
with webbing or light hinges (Fig. 6). They are compact and
firm. Another good form is a collapsible X-shaped trestle
(Fig. 7) made from 1-inch by 1^-inch stuff, and pivoted so as to

Fig. 7. — Paperhanger's trestle.

close one within the other when not in use. Sheard's patent
combination board and trestle has recently placed all others out
of date.

Paint Bench Trestles. — Bench trestles, similar in construc-
tion to the first-mentioned paperhanger's trestles, but rougher
and heavier, are recommended for the portable paint bench. A
board constructed of four 6-feet lengths of 6-inch x 1-inch flooring,
and battened at the back, forms the top. Paperhanger's boards
should never be used for a paint bench, because of the danger
of oil working into the paper ; neither should the provision of
a proper paint bench be left to chance, but a bench such as is
here described should be sent to all jobs of any size or import-
ance.

Dust Sheets. — Dust cloths or drop sheets are frequently
neglected. They form a most necessary part of the painter's
outfit. Rough unbleached sheeting of a coarse make, 2| yards
wide, in lengths of 5 yards each will be necessary. They should
be stamped with the owners name, and sent to every job in
sufficient numbers to cover up the floors and furniture. With
those who care for a clean and tidy house, a sufficiency of cloths
form a powerful recommendation, and no outlay on plant brings
a better or more profitable return to the employer. A few
narrow 1-yard wide cloths are useful for covering passages, stairs,
hand-rails, &c, and a few square ones for throwing round gas

42 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

fittings and small objects. Some smaller, heavier, close-woven
cloths, about 1 yard by 1 1 yards, for men to move about with
them when doing dirty jobs, as when rubbing down or burning
off, are very desirable. The canvas used for packing bales of
paper is of little use as drop cloths, as, from its coarseness, the
spots of paint and distemper splash right through them. A few
heavy twill or sail-cloths of very large size are desirable fur
covering the whole floor of a room, when it is likely to be in the
painter's hands for some weeks. This will stand the constant
wear and tear of men and trestles. The material of which shop
blinds are made is good for this purpose, and the expense should
not be grudged when it is considered that the use of such means
to protect the floors, does so much to ensure the confidence and
respect of the client.

All dust sheets should be hemmed round and stamped near
the edges, or they are apt to become smaller by degrees and
beautifully less, as strip by strip is appropriated for paint rags.

To Protect Stone Floors, Tiles, &c. — It may be noted here
that the best method of protecting tile or stone floors where much
painting is being done, as in churches, &c, is to liberally strew
the floor with sawdust. This absorbs the spots of oil paint as
they fall and prevents irreparable injury where soft stone is in
question. It also prevents scratching or grazing upon tiles,
when shifting scaffolding about.

Testing Scaffolding; Marking and Repainting Plant. — All
scaffold-poles, planks, steps, &c, must be periodically examined
and tested for flaws, loose hinges, rotten cords, and similar defects.
Every article should be marked anew with the full name and
address of the owner, both as a safeguard against loss and as a
good advertisement. They should be both branded and lettered.

The re-painting should be done at stated periods when other
work is slack, and should not be overdone, as every coat of paint
adds to the weight and consequent cost of handling and cartage.

Cartage. — Oartage is a question which may fairly be con-
sidered in this connection. It is not possible to make any
general rule for this item, as ch'cumstances in urban, suburban,
and rural districts and city centres all vary. A hand-cart or
truck must of course be kept; or two, if necessary. In few town
cases is it economical to keep one's own horses and carts, but in
suburban or country districts a light cart is a necessity.

A valuable general principle is that apprentices or skilled
workmen should not be employed in the handling or haulage of
scaffolding. Labourers and horse power are cheaper and more
effective. The delegation of this work to the skilled craftsman,

PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 43

though in no sense derogatory to him, inevitably lowers his
standard, lessens his pride in his craft, and gradually makes him
a rougher and more careless workman, besides which it is
unprofitable to the employer.

Storage of Scaffolding. — The storage of scaffolding is a
matter that is frequently overlooked. All classes of scaffolding
require putting under cover, if possible. Ladders should be
Avell supported to keep them straight, and not be suspended by
the two ends. A good plan is to form a rack with rollers, so
that the sides of the ladders do not get all the paint scratched
off them in getting them in and out. When ladders are hung up
by one side there is a tendency to loosen the staves. Poles may
be laid on the ground, and piled one upon another, but the
lower ones should be kept ventilated by being raised on short
cross poles or they will draw dampness from the soil. If the
ladders and poles cannot be kept under cover, the next best plan
is to keep them erect, safely kept in place by rails, cords, or
chains. They must be quite upright with no strain on them.
Planks may be set on edge, with air spaces between them, firmly
supported so that they are kept straight. The outhouse m
which the steps and trestles, as well as the foregoing scaffolding,
are kept will be better if freely open to the air — viz., with lattice
sides. They must be kept dry or, when taken indoors, the joints
will shrink and the wedges fall out.

Iron Bods and Tube for Scaffolding. — In considering the
question of scaffolding, it may be borne in mind that ordinary
iron barrels (gas-piping) with the usual elbow and tee joints and
sockets are very useful adjuncts ; difficult bits of work may
often be reached by the use of them. The writer has seen them
used with considerable ingenuity in theatres and churches.

The weight sustainable by a 30 feet drop of -|-inch bore iron
gas-pipe, connected in the ordinary way by f-inch iron threaded
sockets, is, in a vertical pull, no less than 4^ tons. Even
an ordinary gaselier with | inch connection, if properly
fixed, will sustain a weight of 2 tons. The knowledge of these
facts is often turned to profitable account by painters who are
also plumbers and gasfitters, as is usual in London suburbs and
many other places. Due regard must be paid to the question of
leverage, as the threads will not stand diagonal pressure in any
great degree.

Small Articles. — In addition to the scaffolding, very little
actual plant is required except brushes, which will be dealt with
in a separate chapter, but the few remaining small goods which
are now enumerated are indispensable.

44 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Buckets. — As buckets for distemper, washing oft", &c., ordinary
2- and 3-gallon galvanised pails or buckets are the best.

Cans or Kettles. — Paint cans or kettles are made of tinned
iron, galvanised iron or zinc. Of these, a large number is
requisite. Zinc will scrape out easily, but will not stand paint
solvents or removers. Tinned and galvanised iron can be left
soaking in the pickle tub till the paint will rinse off. Three,
four, live, and six, and a small number of eight-inch cans are
required, the same in height as in diameter. In some parts of
the country they are made bucket or tapered shape. The gain
in convenience is counterbalanced by their increased liability
to overturn. Some cans are made with provision for hooking
to ladders for outside work, and some have a nick in the handle
to keep the ladder hook in the centre.

Pots or Pans. — Thumb or hand pots or pans are desirable
for distemper colours, and are useful for many purposes. Ordinary
red-clay or brown-clay pots, glazed on the inside, are made for
this purpose, with handles at the side. Iron vessels must not
be used for distemper, as they rust, but zinc ones may be used,
and are extremely light and serviceable.

The pots must be thoroughly soaked in water before use, and
after being well soaked, they may be used for paint ; the larger
sizes are very convenient for general mixing. Pots are some-
times made with a lip to facilitate pouring. In the larger sizes
this is an advantage.

Small Pots, &C. — For small bits of colour, galipots, jam pots,
and small tins may be accumulated ad libitum. Bottles, both
of glass and sheet tin, with wide necks or with narrow ones
should also be stoi'ed up for use. Odd plates, saucers, and cups
are always useful in the paint shop, the former for using over-
graining or glaze colours from, and the latter for using on the
finger when picking out cornices and similar work. Tin handled
drinking mugs are also light and extremely convenient for this
work.

Stock Drums or Kegs. — Drums, kegs, and varnish bottles for
storage and mixing purposes may be retained instead of being
returned. Many up-to-date firms now send all small quantities
up to 2 gallons in free packages, so that there are always plenty
of small tins available. It is better to repaint all drums that
are retained, your own distinctive colour, as soon as you decide
not to return them. This will prevent errors arising.

Mixing Boards. — Mixing boards as a substitute for the paint
stone on the jobs, and for making up tints when upon the
scaffolding, may be made from f-inch pine boards, about 12 inches

PLANT AND APPLIANCES.

by 9 inches and 15 inches by 10 inches irrespective of handles.
A handle may be left at the narrow end, making the shape like
that of the back of an ordinary hair brush, with a hole through

BOTTOM &R1HG

Fig. 8. — Paquelin lamp.

the handle to hang it up by when not in use. If covered with
thin sheet zinc they will keep clean and scrape easily.

Burning-off Lamps. — For removing old paint nothing is more

Fig. 9. — Swedish lamp.

effective than the spirit lamp, which is made in several forms.
The writer prefers the " Paquelin " lamp (Fig. 8), to all others.

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

This lamp can be used indoors and out, and in any position is
easily controlled, and the blast is strong and steady. All the
working parts are renewable. It is made in different sizes, and
a medium lamp burns at full blast for nearly two hours, giving
a heat of 1500 degrees Fahr. The spirit used is benzoline, and
the action of the blast is automatic, commencing as soon as the
blast chimney is heated to the flash point of the oil.

' r; ~-<so*_

Fig. 10.— The Invincible British blow lamp (Allen's patent).

Other good lamps are the Swedish torch (Fig. 9), the Invincible

(Fig. 10), and the Etna, which differ
in the method of producing the
blast Barthel's patent automatic
is also a useful pattern.

The latest lamp is the Ridgelv,
of which I illustrate a section
showing the valve, which will not
jam, and the automatic pump.
This lamp is guaranteed not to
explode. It is self-cleaning, there-
fore never clogs, as by the simple
process of turning on or off it
is cleaned, dispensing entirely
with wire and needles that ac-
company other torches to clean

Fig. 10a.-

-The Ridgelv blow
lamp.

PLANT AND APPLIANCES.

them with,
screw.

The pump valve is automatic, requiring no set

Fig. 11. — Patent strainers for paint or distemper.

Charcoal Burners.— In some situations charcoal burners are
useful, and several patterns are on the market. They are
especially recommended for burning-off large flat surfaces.

Strainers. — Strainers for both distemper and paint are requisite.
Those with removable bottoms which allow of the gauze being
realily replaced by new are the most convenient. They may
be made by any tinman. Two patterns which have been tested
and found useful are illustrated here. A is suitable for either
paint or distemper, but the other is especially designed for paint,
and the perforated bottom prevents any mishap owing to breaking
away of the gauze under the weight of paint. These strainers
will be found very convenient, as the gauze can be easily taken
out and replaced ; the arrangements for this purpose being very
handy and effective. As shown in the illustration, the clips B
secure the band C, and thus firmly hold the gauze D in position.
A new strainer with loose interchangeable bottoms and no under
edges has been recently introduced by Mr. Bennett, of Manchester.

Other sundries will be mentioned in connection with the
operations with which they are used.

Fig. 12.- — Hamilton & Co.-'s improved paint strainers.

48 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Plant Book. — The importance of a correct record of the
whereabouts of plant, and the assurance of its due return to the
shop, cannot be too strongly emphasized. A plant book in
which each item is tabulated should have a page devoted to
every job, with columns for date and enumeration. This ensures
the return of each item sent out. A second book should be
kept as a stock plant book, in which a page is devoted to every
article, and its whereabouts clearly entered from the preceding
book. The employer can then see at a glance where the par-
ticular ladders or trestles are, and judge whether they are at
liberty to be fetched away and taken elsewhere.

Rough Entry or Day Book for Paint Shop. —The work of trans-
posing the entries from the rough day book to the plant book
will of course be the duty of the clerk, and will not be done at
the workshop, where the only book that is necessary is the rough
day book, in which everything, plant or material, that goes out
or comes in, must be set down in the order of its coming or
going, for future separation and allocation in the office.

Quantity of Plant Required, on Jobs. — In sending out
plant to a job a complete and sufficient quantity should be sent
at once to avoid additional expense of single items going in
supplementary journeys. It may be calculated that a pair of
steps or a trestle will be necessary for each man sent, and a
plank to each two men. For every man on an outside job one
ladder will be necessary, this allows for splicing and contin-
gencies. These suggestions are, of course, comparatively useful.
A better plan is to know exactly what will be the actual require-
ments by a careful look round the job itself. Scaffolding must
be calculated for with care and accuracy, length and number of
poles, planks, number of ropes, wedges, &c, as all these items,
in the absence of a correct list of requirements, may mean an
unnecessary amount of haulage. Two cans, and a bucket, and a
set of brushes, are the minimum allowance required for each
man. A good plan is to have a printed requisition form setting
forth all the items usually required, and having spaces for filling
in the quantities. This saves much time and thought, and
obviates the possibility of important items being left out. There
must be a space left for contingencies, as there are many items
that are only occasionally required which it would be useless to
enumerate. A copy of this form can be filled in by the foreman
or the employer when making out the estimate.

There are many additional items of plant which are required
in shops where special classes of work are predominant.

sr *wr

/• V- s.

fe j^Sfe jj

Tf'ir \r \t ir ir \Y (r

■d

aoraoifJikTtic^

Plate 7.— CONTRASTING ARRANGEMENTS OF PAPERHANGINGS.
To face p. 48.]

RUSHES

PAINTING BRUSHES

RUSHES for painting are various and
costly, ranging from coarse dusting
brushes to those composed of the
finest and rarest hair found in the
animal kingdom. Various kinds of
hair and bristles adapt themselves to
special manipulative processes ; thus
the variety used is considerable. The
bristles are set in holders and handles
of wood and metal of various kinds
and shapes, and are held together
by twine, cord, wire, metal bands,
quills, and other contrivances.

Hog-hair. — The principal ordinary kinds are made from hog's
hair of various qualities, obtained from Russia, America, and, in
lesser quantities, Germany and France. With this is mixed for
the commoner brushes other less expensive substances, as horse
hair, whalebone, vegetable fibre, &c.

Hog's hair is divided into grades ; the finest, used for small
tools of the very best quality, is usually termed "Lyons hair,"
and comes from France. This is not available for very large and

50 PAINTINO AVD DECORATING.

long brashes. The next quality used for best varnish and paint
brushes is termed "lily hair" or "best whites." Then come
"yellow" and "grey" bristles, and, finally, "black," which are
the cheapest.

Various Hair used in Brushes. — Brushes for fine lining, artist's
work, graining and special processes, are made from a large
assortment of hair ; among the most important are ox hair, or
taurus hair, fitch hair, camel hair (which is not obtained from
the camel now, but from the fox), bear hair, sable hair, badger
hair, and others. Indeed, nearly all fur-bearing animals are laid
under contribution to the cause.

Hog-hair brushes are more freely sophisticated than any others,
and they form the bulk of the whole list of brushes. The
articles use 1 for adulteration are horse hair, cow hair, whale-
bone, and vegetable fibre, the latter being usually the fibrous
sinews of the evergreen aloe leaf, a plant found in South America,
and having thick, fleshy, long, spear-like leaves.

Foreign Brushes. — A large variety of hogdiair brushes are
made in Germany and in America for export, and find their
way into this country. Most of the bristles used in them are of
fair quality and genuine hog hair ; but it is so dressed and
bleached that it is not safe to assume its quality without a
practical test. A large amount of care is bestowed in making
these brushes presentable for th« market, and practical utility is
sacrificed thereby. Actual experiment proves that in wear the
bristles that have been so bleached have less spring and durability
than ordinary English grey brushes of similar weight.

French Brushes. — French brushes are usually carelessly and
clumsily made, so far as appearance goes, but in working they
are excellent, and it will be found that proper allowance has
been made in French brushes for swelling, wearing in, &c. They
are often dipped in glue size and allowed to dry, in order to keep
them in good shape till they are required for use, a proceeding
that does not improve their saleable appearance, but a good one
from a practical standpoint. French scene painting and dis-
temper tools are particularly serviceable.

Methods of Fixing Hair.— The method of tying or binding hog-
hair brushes are so varied that space will not admit of par-
ticularisation. In practice, it will be found that heavy metal
ferrules are objectionable ; that for large brushes string binding
is liable to get cut, to burst, or to rot ; that the method selected
should offer the least possible harbour for grit, the lodgment of
hard colour and water; and that it should be capable of scraping
and cleaning without danger of loosening the hairs.

PAINTING BRUSHES. 51

Selection. — Care must be taken in making a selection that
brushes intended for paint shall stand both turps and water
without coming to pieces, as some brushes made for special pur-
poses will not do so. Hog-hair brushes should be soft at the
point, the hair being split and divided at the ends when left in
their natural state. Inferior bristles are cut and trimmed up at
the ends, and are thereby rendered coarse and stiff. In a well-made
brush the bristles are sorted into lengths, and any irregularities
are corrected by a process of grinding or scraping the bristles.
The selection of brushes made from good hog-hair is not a diffi-
cult matter to a man who understands the technique of painting,
because he knows the qualifications of a good brush and looks
for them. The most that a maker of a poor brush can do is to
make it present an appearance of the real article.

Test of good Brushes. — The first test of a good brush is its
price. The value of hog bristles, fit for the best brushes, is
about 10s. per lb. Allowing for a margin of waste in making up,
it is thus at once apparent that 8 ounces of genuine bristles in a
brush, means a cost of at least 5s., plus the cost of making-up.
But this is merely a negative test, because a spurious brush may
be sold at a high figure.

The next test is microscopic. The horny appearance of the
true bristle is thus readily distinguishable from all kinds of fibre,
while its complete sectional form prevents its confusion with split
whalebone or with horse hair. Next, the spring of the brush is
a fairly reliable test, especially if single hairs be bent at a sharp
angle and then released.

A final, and most reliable, test for fibre is to singe the hairs
singly. The true bristle frizzles up and gives off an offensive
odour, while the fibre burns clear and is odourless. Different
hairs give off different odours, which are distinguishable with
practice. Fibres leave an ash after burning, bristle leaves
none.

Returning to the microscopic test a good complete bristle
tapers from root to point, while horse-hair tapers much less,
indeed, to any but a keen eye, it is apparently of the same thick-
ness throughout its length.

From these remarks it will be apparent to the practical man
that he need not be imposed upon by the substitution of other
materials for bristles. The real difficulty of selection lies in the
distinguishing of the different qualities of the genuine a) tide,
and here there is a wide field in which to buy experience.

The microscope will again be of assistance, revealing any
defects in the condition and preservation of the bristles, ex-

[>2 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

posing hollowness, dryness, lack of solidity and bleaching or
other doctoring up of cheap bristles. It will further show if
all the bristles are of the same quality. It would, however,
take a complete course of study to become an expert in the
quality of bristles. The safest plan is to buy of a maker who
has a reputation to maintain, and to use practical judgment
in the selection of what feels to be a brush having the qualities
you know that such a brush requires.

A brush, the bristles of which have any tendency to spread
outwards, should be avoided. The wood core of the brush
should not be too large, or it will cause separation of the brush
and hollowness in wear, nor should the core project too far into
the brush, but only sufficient to take the pressure of the
binding. The quantity of bristle should be compared with the
size of the brush, by winding a piece of string tightly round
below the stock. The diameter of the core should not be more
than one-third that of the brush.

Fig. 13. — Two- and three-knot distemper brushes.

Distemper Brushes. — The following list comprises most of
the general brushes used in the trade.

Distemper brushes for large surfaces, as walls and ceilings,
are made in various qualities of bristle and of various patterns.
They are made in separate knots of hair, each knot separated
by and bound to the stock. Two-knot brushes (Fig. 13) are the
most generally used, but three and four knots get over the
ground more quickly, and are preferable for large ceilings or

PAINTING BRUSHES.

Avails. The labour is proportionately heavier, so that the saving
is not great.

The three-knot brush (Fig. 13) is the commoner kind used for
rougher work. Distemper brushes are also made in the flat form
shown in Fig. 14, in which the bristles are evenly distributed
along both sides of the stock, and kept in place by leather bands
nailed to the stock. This form is used in country places, and is
a favourite in the North of England.

Fig. 14. — Nailed stock distemper brushes.

The Best Distemper Brushes. — Two patterns of these are
shown, the smaller one being the Yorkshire pattern. Another
form, and one fast becoming a favourite, consists of a single
flattish knot of bristles kept in place by a copper or brass band
(Fig. 15). The better qualities of this description are used in
America and elsewhere, for painting compo or weather boarded

PAINTING AM) DECORATING.

outsides where a considerable space has to be covered. Various
patterns, showing the most important variations in make, are

Fig. 15. — The best form of distemper brush.

illustrated (Figs. 16, 17 and 18). Some of the slight differences
of form are due to local prejudices.

Fig. 16. — Common tin bound distemper brush.

The American brush (Fig. 17) is light and sparse in bristle,
and is particularly well adapted for the plastico and gypsum

Fig. 17. — American distemper brush.

preparations which are apt to set and harden in the stock of a
full bristled brush.

PAINTING BRUSHES.

Sizes. — Distemper brushes are denominated by the weight of
hair they contain, which ranges from 8 to 12 ounces. They

Fig. 18. — Wall, shingle, and weather boarding brushes.

are also distinguished by the number of knots, and in the case
of flat brushes by their breadth, ranging from 3J to 8 inches.

Wash-off, Caustic, and. Lime-white Brushes. — Wash-off
brushes (Fig. 19) are like distemper brushes in form, but made

Fig. 19.— Wash-off brush.

from cheaper hair. Some brushes are made for use in strong
alkali, and vegetable fibre is used for these in place of hair.
They are made in both the knot and nailed stock forms.

Special round coai'se fibre brushes are made for applying

PAINTING AND DKCORATINO.

caustic solutions and paint removers (Fig. 20). Lime-washing
brushes are a cheaper form of distemper brushes, but another
form, shown in Fig. 21, is also used for lime.

All the foregoing brushes should be well soaked before use,
not only when new, but also after any length of disuse. They

Caustic brush.

must be thoroughly washed out, after using, in warm water and
rinsed in cold water. If they have been used in Duresco, or
other washable distemper, they must be thoroughly freed from
all trace of it by rinsing in vinegar. They must on no account
be left standing in any preparation containing lime for a length

Fig. 21. — Loose head lime white brush.

of time, neither should they be left in water sufficiently long for
it to attack the binding.

Painters' Dusters. — Dusters — that is, brushes for removing
the dust from work prior to painting, and for sweeping the
margins of the floor near the skirting, treads and risers, &c. —
are made in many forms (Figs. 22, 23, and 24).

The pattern used in Manchester (Fig. 23), and in the North
generally, is better for getting into corners than the round
duster, and is especially useful on staircases. Dusters should
be occasionally washed, the bristles only being wetted, or they
may be loosened from the stock.

For dusting down brickwork or compo walls prior to repainting

PLATE II

PAINTING BRUSHES. 57

a fibre scrub-shaped brush (Fig. 25) is used. It is also very

Fig. 23.— Manchester painter's duster.

Fig. 24. — London painter's dnster.

necessary for well brushing fences or gates near the ground, and
kindred purposes.

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Paint or Ground Brushes. — Paint or ground brushes is the
name given to tlie larger brushes used for oil painting. They
are made in a variety of forms of which we illustrate t lie more

general types. No. 1 (Fig. 26)
shows a knot brush. This
brush is elliptical in form and
keeps its shape when in use
fairly well. No. 2 is an oval
wire - bound brush. These
brushes, which are termed
Fig. 25.— Fibre scrub brush. oval, are more correctly

speaking elliptical. It is a
reliable form of brush, and is readily cleaned and changed from
colour to colour. No. 3 is a round brush, and No. 4 is a

No. 1.

No. 2. No. 3.

Fig. 26. — Faint or ground brushes.

No. 4.

"flat oval." All these brushes are wire-bound, and the wire
binding is soldered together to prevent untying. They are

PAINTING BRUSHES. 59

made by C. A. Watkin's patent, and we regard them as the most
perfect brushes in the trade.

Ground brushes are made in sizes distinguished by numbers,
and weights in ounces which designate the weight of bristle in
the brush, as Nos. 1 to 8, and 1 oz. or 1/0 to 8 oz. or 8/0. The
4/0 brush is usually the best size for general purposes.

Before putting a new brush into paint it is desirable to soak
the stock of the brush if it be a string-bound one or has a wooden
stock. Many of the better patterns made now do not require
soaking,asthe bristles are held in place bymechanical contrivances.
Do not wet the bristles, but hold them open and pour water into
the centre, or stand them handle down in water up to the binding
for a few hours. When not being used, after having once been put
into the paint, they must be submerged to the stock in water, or
if not likely to be used for some time, they should be well
washed in hot water and soap. These rules apply to all brushes
used in paint. Yellow bar soap is better than any other for this
purpose.

Patent Eeady-Made Brush Bridles. — When new, a ground
brush or tool will require tying up, or bridling, so that the
bristles are not too long for use. This added binding will
require partially removing, from time to time,
as the bristles wear down. A ready-made
bridle (Fig. 27) is supplied by brushmakers.

How to Bridle a Brush. — Most practical men
prefer to bind on their own bridling, a process
somewhat difficult to adequately describe in
words. There are several methods of accom-
plishing the purpose. Our illustration describes Fig. 27. — Brush
one of the neatest. It represents the pro- bridle,

cess of tying up a 4/0 round brush. A knot
of whipcord is used for the purpose of making the bridle. Taking
the brush in the left hand, make a cross loop at the end of the
cord, and lay it on the brush as in 1 A (Fig. 28) ; then, on the
•opposite side, place a loose loop of ordinary twine or string,
which will not form part of the finished bridle, but is merely for
the purpose of bringing the end through from the top of the
bridle when the binding is finished. Then, keeping the two
loops in place with the thumb and forefinger, proceed to wind
the cord round the brush, starting from the binding and working
toward the tips of the bristles. 1 A and 1 B show the upper and
under side of the brush when three or four coils have been wound
round. Do not wind too tightly. Continue plain winding till
within about three strands of the required height, but in the last

PAINTING! AND DECUKA 1 INC.

three intertwine the cord as shown in 2 B and 3 B, and in the
last round of all, thread it through the two loops. Then draw
the loops down as shown in 2 A on the one side, and in 3 B on
the other side. In the latter case disengage the twine loop
which is done with, and draw the loose end of the cord through
until tight. Then knot the two loose ends as in E, and drive a
tack through the centre of the knots into the stock (as in 0).
D shows the finished bridle and gives the correct proportional
depth of bridle to brush. The size of the cord is purposely
exaggerated to show the twisting more clearly. It will be
noticed that in this method, both the straight cords are kept
inside the bridle, thus making a neat and strong finish.

Fig. 28. — Bridling a brush.

To partially release the bridle and lower it, take out the
tacks, and unthread the last few coils by passing them over the
ends of the bristles. This may be carefully done, without cutting
and without allowing the ends to slip under. Tighten up as
before, and re-knot, cutting off the unnecessary ends of cord.

PAINTING BRUSHES.

Messrs. Bennett have recently introduced a useful addition
to paint brushes that require bridling. It is known as the
Joyce patent shoulder and loop, and is a practical improve-
ment.

Varnish Brushes. — Yarnish brushes (Fig. 29) are similar
in form to the foregoing, but, in consequence of their never
being used upon rough preparatory work to break them into
shape, they are bevelled for use. In the case of paint brushes,
their use in rough work accomplishes this bevelling. Varnish
brushes are also specially cemented to withstand the action of
spirits, and are not always made to resist water, as they are not
supposed to be put into water.

Fig. 29. — Ordinary varnish brushes, three patterns.

The bristles are usually of a superior quality, finer and
straighter than those used in any but the very best paint
brushes.

Flat varnish brushes (Fig. 30) are a more recent innovation
than the preceding form, and are designed for coach and highly-
finished wood-work, and for use in the enamels now prevailing.
They are of far better form for leaving a highly-finished surface
than the oval or knot brush, but do not last so long in wear if
used on ordinary general work.

An additional form of varnish brush is shown in Fig.
31, which is useful for general outdoor work, sashes, fences,
and gates, railings, &c. ; also an ordinary varnish sash tool
(Fig. 33).

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Varnish brushes of every pattern, when not in use, should he
suspended by the handle in oil or varnish, and care taken that
the bristles do not touch the bottom of the vessel.

Nickel Plated Cases. Polished Cedar Handles.

Fig. 30. — Bevelled flat varnish brushes.

Fig. 31. — A form of varnish brush for general work.

Fig. 32. — Varnish tool specially recommended for paper varnishes.

Sash Tools. — Sash tool is the name given to the smaller
brushes used in painting. The forms they take are legion,
and a few selected patterns are shown (Figs. 33 to 35), with
notes on their special uses. They are intended for the smaller
parts where the 4/0 brush is too large and bulky, and also

PAINTING BRUSHES.

for cutting up the edges of work, sash bars, &c. The same form
of brush is used as an auxiliary to the distemper or flat brush ;
they should therefore stand the action of both water and
temperature. The same class of tools are frequently used for
varnishing.

Fig. 33. — Sash tool, string bound, ordinary form.

Fig. 34. — Copper bound sash tool — C. A. Watkins's patent.

Fig. 35.- — Sash cutting tool in tin.

Fig. 36. — The Ensign Brand, newest method of fastening bristles
into brushes. A copper ferrule closed over the bristles by
patented machinery.

Tools are known by numbered sizes ranging from 1 to 12.
Paint tools must be kept suspended in water when not in use,
or may be washed and put away.

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Stipplers. — Stipplers are brushes used for producing a soft
and even surface to paint and distemper. The brush is dabbed
against the painted wall after the paint has been spread, and
while it is still wet, producing a granular instead of the usual
brush-marked surface. Stipplers must be washed in soap and
water, ordinary yellow soap, not soft soap, and dried and hung
up so that the bristles remain straight The water must not be
boiling, and the wooden portion of the brush should not be put
into the water. Dip the tips of the hairs in and then rub them
across the soap till there is a composite lather of soap and paint,
then rinse. Do not scrub or bend the bristles unnecessarily,

Fig. 37. — Hog-hair "fitches" in tin, round and flat.

Fig. 38. — Hog-hair lining fitch in tin.

bis. 39.— Frenc

lair tool string-bound for distemper painting.

Fig. 40. — Quilled hog-hair for stippling and distemper lining.

but give the soap time to amalgamate with and destroy the oil
in the paint. Shake out the surplus moisture, dry by stippling
on a cloth and leave hung up or stood on edge. Never leave
the brush lying on its back, or the water will cause the back to
buckle up. In common with all other brushes, the bristles, if
they get doubled up, or "crippled" are materially injured, and
the injury is more or less permanent. Care must therefore be
taken that brushes are so packed or stored as to keep them
straight. The best way to remedy accidental crippling is to

■smk

•

Plate 8.-TW0 BREADTHS OF A DROP PATTERN PAPER.
To face p 64.]

PAINTING BRUSHES. 65

stand the bristles of the brush in hot water for a quarter of an
hour. Then straighten them with a comb or the hand and leave
them to dry slowly. Stipplers are illustrated in the chapter on
Painting.

Paperhangers' Brushes. — Paperhangers' brushes are of soft,
long, pliable bristles set in knots, and are used for pressing the
paper on to the wall or ceiling. They are illustrated in the
article on paperhanging.

Fitches. — " Fitches," or hog-hair brushes in tin or albata
ferrules are used for decorative work, picking out enrichments,
painting mouldings, and the painting of ornament. They are
made both round and fiat in section. Fitches are also made with
a bevelled edge for lining. They are used in distemper and in oil,
and when laid aside should be washed in soap and water or stood
in water. The latter course is apt to rust them and corrode the
tin or metal ferrules. They are numbered in sizes 1 to 12.

The usual term for fitches is derived from the fact that they
were formerly made of fitch hair. To avoid confusion, they are
usually to be found catalogued as "hog-hair tools in tin," but in
the trade the word " fitch " is universally employed to denote
them.

Softeners. — Softeners are brushes used for blending or
softening one colour into another, or for softening down the
brush marks in painting. They are made in both hog hair and
badger hair, set in knots in a wooden handle, and are illustrated
in the chapter on Graining. They must always be well washed
in soap and water immediately after use, or they will become
coarse, harsh, and useless. After washing they should be hung
up to dry. It is especially important that the water used for
washing should not be too hot, and that they should be rinsed in
cold water and whisked as dry as possible before leaving them.
The hog-hair softener is used for heavy body colours and varnish
colour, and the badger for glazes, water-colour, and similar
purposes. They are illustrated, and all other graining brushes
are dealt with under the head of Graining and Marbling.

Stencil Tools. — Stencil tools or brushes (Fig. 41), as their
name implies, are used for stencilling. Large sizes are made in
sets or small inserted knots in a wooden stock. The smaller
sizes are set in tin. Still smaller ones, sometimes termed
"poonah" brushes, are quilled and thread-bound. Stencil tools
must be washed out in hot water and soap after using, and
thoroughly dried. To keep the bristles straight, soak them in
cold water after washing. They must not be allowed to lie in
the hot water, or the cement in ndiich the bristles are set may

GG PAINTING AND DEC0BAT1NG.

give way. They must not be soaked in turpentine, unless
specially made to withstand turpentine.

Sable Writers. — Sable writers' and sign-writers' brushes
need little description other than the illustrations given in
another part of the book. Red sables are the best in quality,
and are recommended for use in heavy pigments as white lead,
or upon a rough wall. Brown sables are superior for use in
deep colours which have little weight, and for use on sign boards
and glass. They are a little less costly than the red hair. Ox
hair writers are useful on the rougher kinds of compo wall, and
for large coarse work. They are less than half the cost of sables.

Fig. 41. — Stencil tool in tin and in sets.

Camel-hair writers are only of use in working under-hand upon
a bench, but are especially recommended for glass-painting, or
for use on tiles or other hard shiny surfaces. They are quite
useless for heavy pigments, as white lead. Writers are made in
both metal and quill settings. The latter work best ; the
former, of course, stand rougher usage. The setting does nut
affect the life of a pencil if properly cared for. Short sables of
red and brown hair, and also short ox hair, fitch hair, and camel
hair, are used for various classes of work by the decorator.
Extra long sables, known as riggers, are used for underhand
tracing and outlining. Liners are long sables having a square
top instead of a point. The hair is about 2 inches long, and they
are used, as their name implies, chiefly by coach painters.

All the foregoing pencils are known in size by the size of their
quills, as swan, goose, duck, crow, &c. Pencils in ferrules
are sometimes numbered from 1 to 12, commencing with the
smallest. They all require washing out in turpentine and
moistening with grease or Russian tallow when not in use. This
should be done as follows : — The whole of the paint should be
rinsed out by agitating the brush in a vessel of turpentine ; the
brush must then be dried by pressing on an absorbent piece of

PAINTING BRUSHES.

cloth, and the tallow should be well worked in to the stock or
heel of the brush by careful manipulation of the left thumb and
forefinger, taking great care not to cripple the hairs. It should
be drawn gently through the fingers, the tallow being pressed
into the brush, and left with a fine point. These pencils should
be kept in a tin case or box to prevent vermin nibbling them
for the sake of the tallow.

Swan quills (Fig. 42) are full pencils of soft camel or other

Fig. 42. — Swan quills in quill and in ferrule.

hair, somewhat stumpy, and with straight cut points. They are
used for laying even washes of colour on mouldings, bands, or
small surfaces. They are mostly made in quills, but sometimes
in metal ferrules, and are made in four sizes, 1 to 4, com-
mencing where the smaller pencils leave off.

A larger kind of camel-hair round brushes are known as
" mops or d&bbers " (Fig. 43), and are used by gildei's and for
lacquering and spirit varnishing.

Fig. 43. — Camel-hair domed mop quill and wire bound.

Camel-hair brushes of flat form (Figs. 44, 45, and 46), set in
tin, are used for laying washes of colour, for spirit varnishes and
ormolus, and for lacquers, isinglass, and other sizes, &c. The
hairs are firmly set in tin and secured by cement and rivets.
They are known by their width in inches, which range from | to
4 inches. They vary greatly in quality and also in thickness.

When used in lacquers or varnish, these brushes should be
washed in methylated spirits otherwise, in water. Spirit

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

washed brushes should be kept in a canister free from the air.
This keeps them soft.

Brushes Found by the Employer. — The tools and brushes
described here are such as are always found by the employer, as

Fig. 44. — Thin camel-hair, flat, unri vetted.

Fig. 45. — Best thick camel-hair, flat, rivetted.

Fig. 4li. — German domed camel-hair, flat

they are worn out during the progress of the work. Other tools,
which are sometimes found by the workman, will be described in
their separate connections, together with their uses.

The Purchase of Brushes. — In the purchase of brushes one
element of importance is frequently overlooked. Each class of
brush and each pattern require different treatment in use. Some
are made to stand water and some turpentine, some both, and
some neither. Nothing but a personal acquaintance with a
particular make of brush will enable a man to use it to the best
advantage. Familiarity with a particular pattern of brush or
tool in painting, as in other trades, leads to expertness. It is
quite as unreasonable to expect the best and most economical
results from a workman to whom you are continually, giving
different makes of tools and brushes, as it would be to expect a
man to write his best hand with a strange kind of pen.

Mere caprice and lack of thought is responsible in many

PAINTING BRUSHES. 69

instances for a continual change of policy in respect to brushes,
and causes a sacrifice of efficiency and the destruction of many
good brushes because they are unfamiliar to the men, in addition
to much loss through ignorance of the character of the brushes
themselves.

True Economy in Brush. Buying. — It cannot be too
strongly laid down that the truest economy is to obtain the best
quality of brushes, and to always adhere to the same kind for the
same work. Personal observation has convinced the writer that
of two employers doing a fairly equal business, both in volume
and class, one may be spending just double what the other
spends upon brushes and tools, and yet have no increase in
efficiency.

Storage of Brushes.— Brushes should be carefully stored.
It is absolutely necessary that they be kept in a moderate
temperature. Heat and dryness will cause the wood stocks to
shrink and perhaps crack, the animal glues to split and crack, and
the twine to loosen. On the other hand, dampness or frost will
destroy the glue, rust the metal, cause the wood to swell and the
leather to give way, and rot, and finally burst the twine. Next, it
is equally important that they be laid so as to avoid crippling.
The tools should be kept in the boxes or packages in which they
are supplied, free from dust and dirt. The camel-hair and sable
brushes are very liable to be attacked by moth. Pepper,
camphor, or insecticide may be placed in the drawers with them
to keep away these pests, who will soon do a pound's worth of
damage, and will, when once established, remain till every brush
has been ruined. Most of the brushes illustrated are made by
Messrs. Hamilton &, Co., and are personally knoAvn and have
been used by the writer for many years, but this fact does not
by any means imply that they are the sole manufacturers of
x'eliable brushes.

Wire Brushes. — Brushes set with stiff wire are much used
for removing loose paint, rust, &c, from metal work, girders,
railings, <fec.

No. 355 is useful for laying on varnish remover, lime, &c, as
well as for rough wet dirt-removing from gutters, &c.

Brush Suspenders are used for keeping the points of
brushes from contact with the bottom of the can. A simple
device — one of many — is illustrated (see next page).

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

"I 'H'PfffBlf

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36S

370

Fig. 46a. — Wire brushes,

Fig. 4(V<- — Ridgely brush suspender.

CHAPTER Y.

JOR a complete manual of materials
used in painting, the reader is
referred to Hurst's Painters' Col-
ours, Oils, and Varnishes.

In the present Chapter the
principal necessary materials are
merely enumerated, and their
technical qualities noted.

PIGMENTS. — Pigments claim
first attention.

Whites. — The staple whites now
in use are white lead and white
zinc, both of which in various forms, singly and combined, enter
into the composition of every tint of oil paint.

During the past ten years great and far-reaching changes
have been made in the general trade custom as to the use of
whites.

Only a few years ago white lead was the base white for almost
all paints, but at present it is certain that at least f)0 per cent,
of painting is carried out without the use of any white lead at
all. White lead is, however, still very largely used, especially

72 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

for exterior work and for important public and private eon-
tracts where it enters into the architect's specification.

Many factors have assisted in bringing about the change.
The heavy cost of white lead per square yard of work covered,
in spite of the undoubted superiority of it as a protective coating
for external work, especially upon work that is subjected to
extremes of temperature and great humidity. The somewhat
exaggerated danger involved in its use and the more real danger
to those engaged in its preparation, coupled with the increased
attention bestowed by democratic governments in all questions
affecting the health of the labouring classes. But most of all,
the immense improvements effected in the manufacture of
substitutes, at a price and of a quality that induce the painter
to make the exchange both in the interests of his work and
his profits.

At the present time there are many zinc and other whites on
the market that will produce a better surface, a whiter surface,
and a finer finish than white lead. Many of these will cover
better and brush out more evenly than the best white lead.
They are all lighter in weight and therefore oover much more
ground per cwt. of material. They do not discolour by the
action of sulphur, or sulphuretted hydrogen and do not turn
yellow with age or when shaded from the bleaching action of
light. They are less susceptible to many acids, such as carbonic,
by reason of the fact that the oil in which they are mixed
undergoes less change and encases the particles of pigment, thus
rendering them immune from the direct action of such acids.
As a homogeneous paint white lead stands alone. The saponifi-
cation of the oil that takes place during the oxidisation of the
paint, tends to produce a tough leathery skin that is both elastic
and durable, and science has not yet discovered an equally useful
outside white paint for this climate. Linseed oil alone is a
fairly good protection to wood-work, but it lasts very little time
under bright sunshine and frost ; the addition of pigments that
merely mix with the oil in the physical sense, adds nothing to the
life of the oil. White lead chemically modifies the oil, and the
intermixture is apparently so complete that both ingredients
combine to aid each other in the defence against decay. It may
therefore be safely asserted that well-made white lead and pure
raw linseed oil, unadulterated and unspoiled by driers or gums, is
still the best paint for protecting external wood or metal work.

White Lead. — The usual commercial paint is made from a
carbonate of the metal, with which is present a percentage of
lead hydrate. The proportion of carbonate of lead to hydrate of

MATERIALS. 73

lead should be at least 75 per cent, to 25 per cent. It is usually-
ground at the works in linseed oil, and sent out in stiff paste
form in casks of not less than 1 and not more than 5 cwt.

When genuine it is stable, durable, works exceedingly well
under the brush, covers well, and dries in about 24 hours,
becoming hard in about a week without the assistance of driers.

In consequence of its great cost it is much reduced or adul-
terated with mineral whites, such as barytes and China clay, or
the covering power and colour are enhanced by lithopone.
Cheap oils are also added in the grinding process, especially
mineral oil and cottonseed oil. It does not follow that admix-
ture of other whites with white lead lessens the value of the
Avhite as a paint. The addition of zinc in certain proportions
may actually improve the material for some purposes, but,
inasmuch as these additions invariably cheapen the product,
they should be clearly declared by the vendor.

Many attempts have been made to improve the quality of
white lead and to remove many of the objections to its use and
manufacture. The Bischof, Brimsdown, Hannay, and Pattinson
methods of using lead whites as paint material all aimed at the
production of a better white lead. Messrs. Mander produced
lead known as Mander-Hannay white lead for some years, but
it was never an entire success, and the competition of newer
zinc whites, coupled with trade objections to the displacement of
an old material, prevented its becoming commercially successful.
White lead may, of course, be tested for quantitative adultera-
tion by analysis, but there are many rough-and-ready tests based
on chemistry that will suffice for the painter to discover whether
he is getting genuine Avhite lead or white lead with earthy
matter added. One of the easiest is to put some white lead in a
ladle and convert it into blue lead by heat, weighing both the
white lead and the resultant piece of metallic lead, and com-
paring notes and noting whether any dross or earthy particles
are left in the ladle unconverted. If the white lead is pure, it
should weigh about 10 per cent, more than the lump of blue lead
recovered from the ladle, the 10 per cent, representing the
weight of the oil in which it was ground.

Another method is to mix the paste white lead to a paint with
sulphuric acid, using a glass slab and a thin strip of glass. If
the paste mixes into a smooth paint without effervescence
and the production of vaporous fumes, it may be regarded
as pure.

Dry white lead may also be tested for earthy matter by
dissolving it in nitric acid. Any sediment that will not dissolve is

74 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

China-clay, barytes, or a similar adulterant. The test should be
conducted in a small phial or test tube.

White lead is produced by carbonating the metal, which is
cast or rolled into convenient shapes and placed above receptacles
of acid. There are several methods, of which the old Dutch
process is considered the best, in which stacks of alternate pots
of vinegar and bars of lead are built up, together with layers of
tan bark, and left until the bars are entirely converted into the
white carbonate.

Zinc Whites. — There are several whites prepared from this
metal, of which the oxide is the most durable and the sulphide
the best in body and covering power.

The oxide is prepared by the sublimation of the metal. The
best qualities are obtained by the French and English makers,
especially from the works at Vieille-Montagne and Grenelle, and
at Widnes, Lanes. Some of the cheaper brands of zinc oxide
have a yellowish cast, but these cover more satisfactorily than
the purer whites when used in oil. The use of zinc oxide is
increasing rapidly, and the product improves in quality year by
year. If a percentage of white lead be added to zinc oxide, a
most useful paint, with more durability than zinc and more
resistance against discoloration than white lead, is produced.
This mixture may vary from 25 per cent, of zinc white up to 75
per cent., according to the class of work on hand. The exact
durability and utility of these mixtures have not yet been
assessed, but, in my opinion, the paint so prepared is a more
generally useful one than either white used alone. It is also a
moot question as to whether alternate coats of each would not
bring about a more definite improvement than the actual inter-
mixture of the pigments, and, from limited experiment, I have
proved that an outside wooden building coated with two coats of
white lead and a finishing coat of zinc white has all the apparent
virtues of both materials.

Zinc white should be examined for carbonate of lime and
sulphate of baryta, and the acid test, using hydrochloric or nitric
acid, will be the simplest, as the inert earths are insoluble in
these acids, whilst the zinc dissolves completely. In using
nitric acid it must not be used at full strength.

Another useful form of zinc is the sulphide. Those manufac-
tured in America and Germany are found to be less free from
variation than the French zinc products. There are incontest-
able' superior zinc sulphides produced in this country. The
Silicate Paint Company have had their well-known " Charlton
white" on the market for nearly 40 years, and have continually

MATERIALS. 75

improved the product, whilst Mr. J. B. Orr, of Widnes, to whom
more than to any other inventor is due the credit for the
development of this manufacture, is turning out thousands of
tons annually of most reliable quality, far superior to the
cheaper and more largely advertised German lithopones and
zinc whites. A recent improvement of the product at Widnes
has been named sulfoxide of zinc. It is an oxy sulphide of zinc,
and for whiteness, body, fineness, and flexibility is very much
superior to the older sulphide. Its particles are perfectly
homogeneous and very soft, and it mixes most intimately with
the oils in grinding, so much so as to almost vie with the
chemical saponification that goes on between white lead and
linseed oil.

Sulphide of zinc is the base of most of the white enamels on
the market, and also forms the body-colour of the best of the
water-paints, such as Duresco and those of the same class, but
these real paints must not be confounded with the ordinary
washable distempers made from common chalk or whiting.

The general utility of zinc whites is such that, for all indoor
work, decoration, and for many purposes other than painting
outsides, it is to be preferred to white lead, and that it has not
already entirely displaced lead for internal decorative work is
due to old-fashioned prejudice and a lack of acquaintance with
the modern products from zinc. Zinc sulphide cannot be safely
recommended for external work. The sulfoxide, or, as it is
termed under the patent, " Silox," is much more likely to
become popular for outside painting in consequence of its more
complete amalgamation with the oil and the more durable
properties of the combined oxide. I see no reason why it
.should not prove as enduring and protective a covering as white
lead, but it has yet to stand the tests of ordinary everyday use
under the varying conditions of our climate and on the very
varied grounds to which paint is usually applied. The only
tests I have yet been able to make proved entirely satisfactory.

Since a previous revision of this book, the oldest zinc white
works at Grenelle have been practically transferred to Widnes,
and Messrs. Orr are turning out considerably more than
10,000 tons per annum.

Proprietary Whites. — Of these there are now a very large
number, both in paste form and as ready-prepared paints. Their
composition is in most cases undeclared, but it may be taken for
granted that they are based on zinc oxide, sulphide, and litho-
pone. Few of them are reliable for outside painting. They
may be divided into at least four classes : —

76 PAINTING AND DEC0KAT1NG.

1. Paste whites that are as costly as white lead, and in which
sulphide of zinc and zinc oxide predominate. These are valuable
for any work except exposed outside painting, and better than
white lead for most internal work.

2. Paste whites, which are cheaper than white lead and con-
tain at least 50 per cent, of barytes. These are suitable for
rough internal work as preparatory coats only. They are usually
difficult to brush out to a fine surface, and will be found to
separate from the thinners very readily, forming a putty-like
paste at the bottom of the can.

3. Ready-made under-coating whites for enamelling upon.
These are mainly zinc sulphide, and are quite free from objection
for the purpose for which they are recommended. A certain
percentage of varnish imparts an even flow to most of them.

4. Ready-mixed whites of a cheap and rough kind, containing
a good proportion of barytes and China clay and enough litho-
pone to give body. These are of little protective value, but may
be safely used for bodying up inside work, between the priming
and finishing coats.

Ochres. — Ochres come next in importance. Spruce ochre or
Oxford ochre, yellow ochre, and golden ochre, and Mander's
yellow are the yellow varieties principally used, the latter being
of a very fine hue. All are good, stable pigments, and are not
much adultei'ated. They are varieties of yellow earth. The
excellence of an ochre lies in its particular brilliancy of hue, and
its colouring properties or staining power. A common trick in
cheaper varieties is to grind it in oil when insufficiently dry to
increase its weight, and also to add clays and earths of little or
no colouring power to increase both bulk and weight. Ochres
owe their colour to the presence of iron.

Red ochre, light red. and burnt ochre are varieties of yellow
ochre subjected to calcination in kilns, but sometimes this is due
to volcanic action. The same remarks apply as in the case of
the raw ochres.

Raw Sienna is a translucent and strongly tinctured variety of
yellow ochre originally found in North Italy. Burnt Sienna is raw
Sienna calcined. Both the Siennas are permanent and valuable
pigments, and their relative value depends on their transparency.

Umbers. — Raw Umber is a brown earth found in England and
in the Levant. It owes its colour to the presence of iron and
manganese. The Turkey Umber is the richest in colour. It is of
a greenish-brown. Burnt Umber is the result of calcining raw
Umber ; the colour changes to a more transparent and warmer
brown.

MATERIALS. 77

The whole of these earth colours are permanent and safe in
both oil and water colours, and can be purchased either ground
in linseed oil or in water, as well as in powder or lump form.

Burnt Sienna and burnt Umber are very hard to grind, and
it is therefore unwise to purchase them in dry form.

Browns. — Vandyke brown is the only other brown in common
use by house painters. It is a peaty earth containing some
amount of bitumen and iron. Artificial Vandyke brown is
also much sold. The genuine article is rich in colour aud very
transparent, a powerful stainer, and cannot easily be replaced by
any substitute. It is a bad drier, and changes colour and
substance under the heat of the sun. The artificial variety is
much less dangerous in use, dries well, but has not half the
depth or translucency and richness of the first named. Some of
the best Vandyke, brown in colour, is liable to fusion after use
in oil. In this quality it resembles bitumen or tar. If used in
a water-colour glaze upon a hard ground, and varnished, it may
always be relied upon. When used in oil there must be no
excess of raw oil, and the substitution of varnish for raw oil is
desirable. It should only be used when its transparency
demands it in preference to other pigments, as for graining, &c.

Amongst other browns used by decorators, and for ornamental
painting, are Cappagh brown, Mander's Seville brown, Caledonian
brown, asphaltum or bitumen, Prussian brown, and Spanish
brown.

Chromes. — Chrome yellows are the most brilliant yellows
which are within commercial range of the house painter. Non-
scientifically, chromes may be described as white pigments dyed
yellow, and the different depths are produced by intensified
action of the yellow dye. In most chromes the white base is
white lead, and lead chromes will not retain their colour if used
in water. But chromes are also made on a barytes and zinc
white base under the names of lemon yellow, permanent yellow,
and non-poisonous chromes. These colours are fairly permanent
either in oil or water colour, but sometimes they gradually
assume a greener hue. Failing any other yellow that will
compare in price and purity of tone, lemon yellow is the best
pale yellow for distemper colour. Chromes are sold as pale,
middle, deep, and orange.

Dutch Pink. — Dutch pink, a familiar colour in the scenic
artists' list, was much used by the older house painters. It is
transparent when of good quality. It is less permanent than
lemon yellow, and of a slightly olive tone. For glazing in oil
colour or for tinting in distemper it is useful.

78 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Artists' Yellows. — Other yellows available for the artistic
details of decoration are the cadmiums, gamboge, yellow lake,
Indian yellow, aureolin, Naples yellow, orpiment, pure orange,
or alizarin yellow.

Reds. — Venetian red of commerce is an artificial preparation
of iron oxide. There is also a natural variety which is used
under the name of " rouge," and constitutes the base of the red
chalks so much used by artists. Venetian red is one of the best
and least expensive of painters' colours, and is extremely useful
and permanent in oil, water, or any other form.

Persian or Indian red is a natural earth owing its deep
purplish -red to a large percentage of iron. It is perfectly
permanent and useful in oil or water.

A number of red earths are sold under fancy names, all of
which owe their colour to red haematite or red iron ore, different
localities providing different qualities and hues; all such colours
are absolutely safe for use in oil or water.

Vermilion is the brightest red at the disposal of the decorator,
and although costly can hardly be dispensed with. It is a
sulphide of mercury. Many qualities of artificially produced
vermilion are sold. In tint they range from orange to deep
scarlet. Vermilion is a permanent pigment and can be used in
oil or water.

Chinese or Derby red and vermilionette are factitious repre-
sentatives of vermilion at a lower cost, and are now generally
superseded by Mander's Persian red, Berger's mail reds, <tc.

.Red lead is the least expensive bright red, and has all the
good qualities, as well as all the failings, of white lead as a
pigment. It is a most indestructible and strongly protective
agent when properly incorporated with its diluents. Orange
lead is a washed variety of red lead.

Brown lakes, as Victoria and mahogany lakes, damp lake, &c,
are useful for water colour, and some of them are suitable for oils.
They are prepared from aniline matter, and from other sources,
and their permanence and use depend upon their origin and
preparation.

Of artists' colours, crimson lake is used for obtaining delicate
pinks. It is a product of the cochineal. Though fugitive it is
sufficiently permanent for much ordinary house painters' work.

Crimson and scarlet alizarin are powerful reds of similar
character to the carmines and crimsons, but are permanent. They
are colours obtained from the coal-tar products.

A number of substances are now in the market under fancy
names which owe their richness of hue to the same source and

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Plate 9.— PANEL DESIGNS FOR SEMI-NATURAL COLOURING.
To face p. 78- ]

MATERIALS. 79

are reasonable in price. Some of the earthy reds are heightened
in hue by aniline dyes and make an inexpensive class of useful
bright reds. Empire fast red (Goodlass, Wall) is a non-bleeding
red that may be safely used under white.

The madders are too costly for any ordinary work, except for
fine touches in flower or figure painting.

Aniline Reds. — Recently introduced reds of great value and
at commercial prices are Sunlight red, fire red, Antwerp
crimson, Bordeaux red (all these are Mander's colours), and
are due to the improvements in chemical research among the
aniline group of reds.

Blues. — Prussian blue is the standard blue for oil colour use,
and is quite sufficiently permanent in oil for house painting. It
is useless in distemper, rapidly changing in colour as soon as
mixed with whiting or any form of lime. It can be safely
used in water as a glaze, and also with zinc white, if not upon a
lime surface. Antwerp blue is a finer tone of a similar class of
pigment, being slightly greener. The better qualities of Prussian
blue are sold under the name of Chinese blue and bronze blue.

New blue or artificial ultramarine is a permanent blue of
great purity. Its tint ranges from a fairly pure blue inclining
to green to a decidedly violet hue. It is absolutely permanent
in oil or water.

Lime blue is a cheaper pigment than artificial ultramarine,
and is frequently replaced by adulterated ultramarine. It is
made from copper and is unaffected by lime. It is not recom-
mended for use in oil.

Other blues made from copper are useful for distemper, especi-
ally for the production of pale sky blues. Of these Bremen blue
and blue verditer are the best known. A recent blue of fine hue
is azuline, introduced by Messrs. Mander Bros.

Cobalt is a blue of rare purity, but its price places it beyond
ordinary reach. It is useful for artists' work, and is permanent
in any medium.

Indigo is a useful blue for distemper or oil. It is not as much
used as it might be. It is economical on account of its intensity.
For deep neutral tones of blue it is unsurpassed. It is of suffi-
cient permanence for ordinary decoration. Smalt is a cobalt blue
not now used to any great extent. Strewing smalts were formerly
much used for sign boards, &c, and consist of fine particles of
blue glass, which is strewn over a coat of varnish and adheres to it.

Greens. — Most painters' greens are admixtures of yellows and
blues, or yellows and blacks; these are sometimes mixed in
manufacture and sometimes in grinding. The exceptions worthy

80 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

of note arc emerald green, the finest and brightest green that
can be produced, for which there is no substitute. It is reliable
in oil or water, but lacks body, and is crude and staling in tone
if used without admixture. Natural green or terra vert — viz.,
green earth — is a deep olive green of translucent character, useful
in oil or water, and permanent, but of no great power. Others,
in less common use, are verdigris, a copper green of great
intensity, but very poisonous ; only used in oil. Verditer, a
copper green of a fine bluish tone, useful for artistic purposes.
Cobalt green, expensive, but useful for the highest class of work
in oil or water. Viridian, a transparent pure toned blue-green,
quite permanent, and of great value to artists in oil or water.

The commonly known commercial mixed greens are bronze
greens and quaker greens, which are ochre and black or chrome
an 1 black; Brunswick greens, in shades of light, middle, deep, and
ex-deep, are made from chrome and Prussian blue, with a base
of bai-ytes. There are also the chrome greens — made from
chrome yellows and Prussian blue, with less barytes. (There
are true chrome greens obtained chemically — oxides of chrome —
but they are expensive, and made for artists' use.)

Another useful class are emerald tinted greens — viz., Bruns-
wick green, with an admixture of emerald green and common
mineral green ; a colour made up to match the true mineral
green or malachite, from verdigris and other ingredients.

The decorator will find the green lakes and aniline greens
useful for glazes and stains ; also many fancy greens termed
peacock, Queen Anne, olive, &c. Suffield green, of which there
are several grades, Berger's holly green, Lincoln green, zinc
green, and others are displacing the cruder inexpensive green
pigments. They are permanent, unfading, and of greater cover-
ing power than the greens of Brunswick type.

Blacks. — Blue black is a charcoal black, permanent in oil or
water, but not absolutely black in colour. It is the best black
for use in water, being free from fatty matter. Lamp black is a
soot black of great opacity, slightly brownish in colour, useful in
oil, but not a good drier, and too greasy for water. Vegetable black
is a soot black of a higher order of merit. It is intensely black
and of a finer, silkier texture than lamp black. It is of extreme
density, and is very light in weight ; it also is too greasy for
water. Drop or ivory black is a carbon black from bones and
other animal refuse. It is, to use a double positive, a black black ;
indeed, the blackest black we have. It has less body than
vegetable black and makes a good glaze. It is a bad drier, and
better adapted for oil or spirit colour than for water colour.

MATERIALS. 81

Ordinary black paint, as sent out by the dealer in paints, is
usually either lamp black or vegetable black, to which has been
added a certain amount of barytes, usually as much as can be
added without detriment to the colour of the black. Barytes
with black oxide of manganese is also sold as a black paint.

But a few years ago it was usual to grind the majority of these
pigments one's self, and certainly the obligation to do this made
the painter take a greater interest in the quality and nature of
his materials. Now, however, even the finest colours can be
procured ground in linseed oil, turpentine, or water, in the most
perfect manner and by highly scientific methods.

There are numerous most useful additions to the list of pig-
ments that space does not permit mention of, the most numerous
being the colours made from gas-tar residuum, the number of
which are constantly being increased and their purity of tone
intensified.

Consistency of Colours Ground in Oil. — Colours ground in oil
should have about the consistency of butter, while those ground
in water may be slightly more solid — that is, of the consistency
of soft clay. The finer colours should be purchased in collapsible
tubes, holding 1 lb. each, and the commoner ones in -|-cwt. kegs.
Those coming between these extremes may be in 7-lb. tins.

Matsine. — Colours are prepared under this and other names
from transparent pigments and a matt medium, which dry hard
and firm and with an eggshell gloss surface. They are useful for
staining new work, scumbling or graining on painted work, &c.

Commixture of Pigments. — The commixture of pigments having
different derivations is a subject that is much overlooked. In
the present advanced condition of the science of chemistry we
can have no certain guarantee that the colours or pigments of
commerce are composed of just what we have supposed they are
derived from; we are only able to form general deductions. It is,
however, safe to assume, for all practical purposes, that as long as
we know a pigment to be of mineral, or vegetable, or of organic
origin, whatever identical means have been used to produce it,
the origin will remain the same.

Derivation of Pigments. — Broadly speaking, we have altogether
three classes: — Mineral, both natural and artificial; organic,
both animal and artificial; and vegetable, as indigo.

Now, each of these classes will fail to prejudicially affect
others of the same class as that to which they themselves belong.
The first named may be taken as positively permanent, and the
last ms representing fugacity. The more preparation, chemically,
a colour demands in its manufacture, the less able we appear to

82 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

be to depend upon its lasting powers. The moral of this is that

simple pigments are most dependable ; and whenever we can
produce our tints from ochres, earths, &c, we may be sure that
it is best to do so, from the double point of view of economy and
permanence; and when mixing, to use, where possible, each
class of pigment separately.

Adulterations of Pigments. — The same difficulties meet us in
detecting so-called adulteration in purchasing pigments, inas-
much as the great desideratum of the painter is to get a paint
which shall meet certain requirements, and not necessarily to
obtain a given chemical compound. His business is chiefly to
ascertain whether the paints he purchases answer his purpose,
and are good relative value for their cost. It is really extremely
difficult for an expert chemist to say what is and what is not
adulteration, in regard especially to tinting colours.

In reference to adulteration, see that the colours are free from
grit or foreign matter, and test them for staining capacity, pay-
ing always a good price for a good article. Every respectable
firm prefers to sell a genuine article at its real value to those
who will prefer and appreciate such, rather than to deal at
cutting prices for inferior stuffs. The item of great cost is not
paint, but labour; and it takes a man longer to spread 2 lbs. of
bad stuff over a given space, than li lbs. of good stuff over the
same ground

Test for Staining Power in Pigments. — To test colours for
staining powers it is necessary to have standard samples ; obtain
tubes of artists' colour from a thoroughly reliable maker, and
mix, say ^ ounce of each with 1 ounce of white lead of best
quality. The results should be painted on a piece of glass, and
preserved for reference. To use the test samples mix the same
weight of the colour to be tested — viz., \ ounce with an oi nee of
white lead, and compare with sample.

Twelve Colours for Oil Colour Box. — When filling an oil colour
box whose capacity is restricted to, say, 12 tubes, and permanence
is desired, the following will be found capable of matching
every other pigment with sufficient accuracy for the decorators'
purpose : —

Flake white. Vermilion.

Ivory black. Cadmium yellow .

Cappagh brown. Aureolin.

Burnt Sienna. French ultramarine.

Raw Sienna. Cobalt.

Carmine. Viridian.

Whiting. — Whiting is ground chalk (carbonate oi lime), and
forms the basis of our distemper colours. All the ordinary

MATERIALS. 83

mineral colours may be used for tinting it, but it is destructive
to vegetable pigments. It has great body when finely gipund.
A finer preparation than that usually sold is known as gilders'
whiting. Whiting is of no use as an oil paint. Its extreme
lightness and porosity permit it to absorb so much oil, that it
becomes almost transparent.

Prussian blue, Brunswick green, and the lakes are useless as
tinting colours in whiting, the two former rapidly changing
colour in a few clays.

Indigo, the ochres, Umbers, Siennas, emerald green, blue-
black, Venetian or Indian red, vermilion, and lime blue,
or cheap fictitious ultramarine are suitable tinting colours for
distemper tinting, and will, in combination, produce almost
every conceivable hue. Chrome may be used for delicate tints
of cream colour, if not on a white lead base — viz., lemon yellow
or barytes chrome.

Coach-Painters' Colours. — The colours used in coach -painting
are similar to those used in house -painting, but are usually
sold either in dry specially impalpable powder, or ready ground
in turps or other prepared mediums. The latter should be sent
out in hermetrically sealed and full tins, so that no oxidisation
can take place prior to use. They are also put up in tubes
varying from 5 inches by 1^ inches to 3 inches by 1 inch in size.

Ferrodor Paint is a mineral paint specially designed for the
coating of ironwork. It will stand better on iron or steel
structural work than anything I have tried, and is made in
several colours, but the natural steel-grey is preferable as a
preservative. This paint will stand a strong acid bath without
injury, is very elastic, and of great covering power.

Eeady Mixed Paints. — Colours mixed ready for use were
originally intended for amateurs, but are now largely prepared
expressly for the trade, and are invaluable for export and for
work removed from large centres of supply. Where a large bulk
of work, as the exteriors of large public buildings, are concerned,
much labour may be saved by ordering in this form, if the
quantity required amounts to half a ton or more.

The past few years have, however, seen the introduction and
continually extending use of paints prepared ready for use
expressly for the painting trade. This has been the result of
a demand for hard finish in plain colours, both in glossy and
flat or dull surfaces. The supply of these paints is also due to
the fact that the mixing of many paint ingredients can be
better and more thoroughly accomplished by machinery in large
quantities at a time than by hand. Another contributory cause

84 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

is undoubtedly the hich price and decreasing supply of tur-
pentine. Many substitutes for, and many combinations of,
turpentine with gums and other oils can be manipulated during
the preparation of ready-made paints, and by heat and chemical
additions can be made really efficient and economical substitutes.
Pigments and substances that are not usually recognised by the
painter may also be incorporated by the manufacturer with
success and assist in the production of good paint, when, if the
same substances were ignorantly added during the ordinary
hand mixing, they would properly be called adulterates, and
would be detrimental to the life of the paint.

Among the recent improved paints that are upon the market
we find that Messrs. Lewis Berger's, Harland's, and others are
thoroughly practicable painters' paints.

Many of these paints are prepared for special purposes to dry
with or without a gloss, as Berger's " Varnol," which has a high
gloss ; " Harlanid," which dries with little gloss and is for under-
coating ; Matone, a flat enamel surface ; Robbialac, a highly
glossy finish ; indestructible paint, whose name carries its object ;
" Opako," a white having great cuvering power, etc. The
number of these is too great to specify all. Those named are
beyond question for quality, as are doubtless many others.

DRIERS. — Driers are necessary to almost all colours. Some
paints, as antimony, red lead, &c, have a strong affinity for
oxygen, and thus act as driers; others, as verditer and lakes,
are of opposite character. The general painters' drier is termed
patent driers. The original patent drier was made from sulphate
of zinc, acetate of lend, litharge, and boiled linseed oil ; to make
it into bulk and to reduce its rapidity to reasonable limits,
white lead and barytes were added. It is now made in many
ways and of many materials, the above remaining the staple
ingredients. Copperas is frequently admitted into patent driers,
and vitriol in other forms than the sulphate of zinc.

Good patent driers should not deepen to brown in drying
or skinning ; water should have no effect on it. The skin
formed should be tough and leathery.

Drying Agents for Paint. — Red lead is a drier. Sugar of lead
is one of the best and safest driers for lead paints. Litharge is
another good drier for all lead paints. Borate of lead and borate
of manganese are used to make drying oils.

Most of these substances are capable of causing pure linseed
oil to dry, if added in the proportion of about 1 lb. to the cwt.
as their ulterior action on the paint is always detrimental, except
in the case of litharge, sugar of lead, and red lead with white

MATERIALS. 85

lead paints, a sparing use of them is recommended. The
ordinary commercial drier is often very low in drying power,
and consists of as much as 80 per cent, of larytes or whiting,
For. ordinary purposes 1 lb. to 14 lbs. of white lead is excessive.
Varnishes may be utilised as drying agents, and are safe, if of
goncl quality.

Liquid Driers and Terebine. — Liquid driers and terebine arc
much used by painters, as they are conveniently added at any
stage of mixing, or after mixing. The more powerful kinds are
li tble to be dark, and will discolour delicate tints. The pale
varieties are not such strong driers. Used too freely, all tere-
bines are strongly contractile, induce cracking, and some react
under heat as a kind of solvent, if very excessively used. Messrs.
Harland & Sons, of Merton, produce a reliable pale liquid drier,
as do Goodlass, Wall, of Liverpool. Different kinds of driers
should not be used in conjunction ; indeed, the drying may be
retarded, instead of hastened, by adding one kind of drier to
paint that already contains another kind. The true effect of
most liquid driers is seen by the soft, sticky mass that will
form in the spout or about the neck of tins containing them.
They must never be used in such excess as to overbalance the
natural oxidisation of the oil ; about an ounce of terebine to 3
lbs. of colour is recommended. If the colour is very oily this
may be increased by one-half.

Seccoline, a combination of japanners' gold size and terebine
made by Messrs. Blume, is a medium between ordinary driers
and the latter. It is a safe and useful article which does not
discolour the tints, and is less contractile and solvent than most
of the older liquid driers.

Powder Driers. — A good white powder drier for zinc or Charl-
ton white may be made by mixing in powder equal quantities of
sulphate of zinc, acetate of manganese, and sulphate of man-
ganese, and adding sixteen times their combined weight of white
oxide of zinc.

French Powder Driers. — This is a similar composition to that
known as French packet driers, or powder driers. One ounce
of this powder is added to 7 lbs. of ordinary paste zinc or Charlton
white.

PAINTERS' OILS. — Painters' oils are usually bought by the
barrel of 36 gallons. Turpentine, linseed oil, and boiled linseed
oil are those in ordinary use. Nut oil, poppy oil, oil of lavender,
&c, are used in decorative processes, and in picture painting.

Turpentine. — The most important is turpentine. The best
turpentine should remain limpid and clear for at least a month,

86 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

if placed in an open jar and left exposed to the air] a piece of
muslin laid across the jar will keep out dust, <fcc. It should also
leave no oily mark if a drop is dripped upon a sheet of note-
paper and held near a fire so as to allow it to evaporate.
Turpentine is prepared from many sources and is of varying
quality and smell. The odour of really good turps is
refreshing and not nauseous. Turpentine dries mainly hy
evaporation, leaving behind a resinous and somewhat sticky
residuum. When used as a thinner, to paint, it causes it to dry
with flat, dead, or dull surface. American and Russian turpen-
tines are the most frequently used, the latter being considered
the best for general purposes ; but by far the greater part of the
turpentine used is American, and is perfectly reliable.

Petroleum and turpentine substitutes are used for low grade
work, and are dangerous and untrustworthy, unless for special
purposes.

Linseed Oil. — Tlie next in importance is linseed oil. Colour
and smell are a valuable test for linseed oil in its raw state.
Compare the odour with that of good crushed linseed meal. 80
also is the comparative test of weight, as against water. A
measure of oil weighing 9 lbs. 6 ozs., should hold 10 lbs. of
water, if the linseed oil be what it professes to be. Oil dries by
oxidisation, remaining in the paint in the form of an elastic,
transparent, and leathery skin.

Boiled oil is linseed oil heated to boiling point, in which a
little manganese is generally steeped during the boiling process
It is also known as "drying oil." The chief fault in the boiled
oil of commerce is ropiness and viscidity. It should be a good
colour, quite as limpid as the raw oil, and should, if spread upon
a piece of glass, dry or have a skin over it in twenty-four hours.
Boiled oil is often dark and cloudy (if so it should be rejected),
and is slightly deeper and richer in colour than the raw oil.

Size, Glue. — For distemper colours the binding medium is
size or glue. These materials are extracted from bones, horns,
hoofs, leather, skins, ifcc.

Two principal qualities are present in them — viz., gelatinous-
ness and adhesiveness.

For painting purposes a gelatinous size is preferable to an
adhesive one, but for some purposes, as preparing walls for
papering, adhesiveness is desirable. The adhesive quality in
glue can be reduced, and the size therefrom purified by soaking
the glue for a couple of days in cold water preparatory to
dissolving it for use, This method also tests the quality of the
glue, as the best glues will absorb the largest weight of water in

Plate 10.- PATTERNS SUITED TO STAINED WOOD DECORATION.

To face p. 86.]

MATERIALS. 87

a given time. One pound of good Scotch glue, when placed in
water for twenty-four hours, aud taken out and weighed, should
weigh at least 7 lbs.

The various products used in preparing and refining size
should be removed before the size is fit for use, as acids and
alkalies are often present in sufficient quantity to affect the colour
of painters' pigments. Pure gelatine size is insoluble in cold
water. The use of alum or vinegar in size is to precipitate the
adhesive portion of the compound, leaving the gelatinous part pure
and clear. It is added to the size while hot, and the size strained
after the addition. Overheating of size prevents its jellying.

The addition of oil of cloves or peppermint to size gives it a
pleasant odour, and prevents decomposition ; a lump of camphor
floated in it, or a teaspoonful of carbolic acid, has a similar effect.

Size is purchased in the form of cake glue, cake gelatine,
desiccated glue, or concentrated size, and in jelly form, known
as "patent size" and "double size." The concentrated size
known as Mander's, requires a 1- lb. packet to make 1| to 2
gallons of jelly size of usable strength.

Undoubtedly the most convenient form of size is the patent
jelly, especially for distemper, as in this form much of the
adhesive gluten has been extracted or precipitated, and the
remaining part is more or less pure gelatinous matter. It is so
treated as to keep good for a length of time.

It is a far more dependable and workable size for general use,
always maintaining a standard strength. The strength of a size
in solution may be tested by the same kind of instrument as
milk is tested by for added water — viz., a lactometer, the specific
gravity of a size of sufficient strength for general use being the
same as that of pure milk.

The addition of sugar or glycerine to distemper colour keeps
it from drying rapidly, which is sometimes desirable.

Mediums and Binders. — Starch, milk, gum-water, honey-
water, and beer are all used for fixing or binding water-colour,
as is also fuller's earth and other substances, but not generally
by the house painter.

Washable Distempers. — Washable distempers are produced
in various ways, usually by the introduction of oils made
miscible with size by the addition of some solvent or medium
common to both, as the addition of enough alkali to saponify the
oil, or render it amenable to the action of water. They have a
use in the economy of painting, being especially serviceable upon
damp or new walls, and as damp-resisting media. The best
washable distemper in the market is that known as " Duresco."

88 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Plasters and Stoppings. — Plaster of Paris is gypsum. It
makes a good useful stopper for walls under paper, or for
distemper work, but cannot be painted upon for a few clays with
safety. It is mixed with water. Caustic soda and powdered
resin added to plaster will make it more porous and extremely
tenacious. Plaster and red lead used mixed with oil makes a
good pointing between wood and brick. Keen's cement, a sub-
stitute for plaster for painted walls, can be painted upon at
once ; mix with water. Mastic cement is a cement used for
connecting wood and stone, or stone and metal ; it is mixed with
boiled oil. It can be made from slacked lime in powder, finest
sand and litharge, in equal parts, or with less litharge if not
required to set quickly. Putty is linseed oil and whiting, mixed
to the consistence of clay and well kneaded. It is used for
stopping ordinary painted woodwork, on previously painted wall
surfaces, and for glazing.

Plastine. — The best substance, however, for glazing is "plas-
tine," a proprietary article of Messrs. Carson's, Battersea, which,
whilst forming a skin on the surface hard enough to paint on in
twenty-four hours, never gets bone dry or hard and brittle, and
can always be cut out easily though holding tenaciously. It is
always soft, and, therefore, does not get wasted as putty does.

Hard stopping, dry white lead, and ordinary putty, or paste
white lead, and whiting are used for stopping after first coats.

Extra hard stopping is made with dry white lead and whiting,
and Japan gold size, boiled oil, and turps, and is used for facing
up when required to harden off at once. Filling-up powders are
preparations of clay, silica, or slate in dust form ; they are used
in hard varnish and turps. Harland's filling-up powder is a
very reliable one and rubs down well.

Glass Paper and Smoothing Materials.— In the production of
smooth surfaces, several rubbing down materials are necessary.
First, glass paper for new wood, soft paint and distemper,
plaster, &c. Glass paper is strong paper coated with glue, and
strewn over with powdered glass, sand, firestone du-t, or emery
powder. It should be flexible and stand repeated creasing with-
out breaking and the sand and other particles should adhere
firmly, as may be ascertained by slightly rubbing the surface
with the finger tips. The particles should wholly cover the glue
and be sharp and angular, points which can be determined
by examination with a magnifying glass. The glass paper
should be kept in a dry place and at a moderate tempera-
ture, as in a moist hot place grains will become detached. It is
made in degrees ranging from 0, very fine: to No. 3, very

MATERIALS. ^9

coarse; Ik is the most useful number for general work. The
numbers do not express the same degree of fineness in all makes,
those quoted being Oakey's. The life of glass paper in use varies
considerably ; if the glue used in making the paper is a poor one
it will clog immediately, especially on paint that is not too hard.

Firestone paper is good for rubbing distemper filling ; it clogs
less than other papers in working.

Pumice stone in blocks is used for rubbing old or hard
surfaces. It should, be light in weight and open in grain.
Patent composition blocks are also made for the same purpose,
of varying degrees of grain from 1 to 4, and, being of even grain
throughout, are very convenient in working, especially for coach
or door work. Powder pumice is used for rubbing with a felt
and water, for finishing varnished or enamelled surfaces. It is
sold in several degrees of fineness. Rotten stone and putty
powder are used for polishing and fine finishing; rouge and
fine flour for varnish polishing by hand. Steel wool has lately
been much used as a surfacer. It does not clog like glass paper,
and is made in varying grades up to steel shavings for coarse
work. Messrs. Ridgely supply the best we have tried.

Other materials, such as varnishes, will be dealt with, and
their merits discussed under their special headings.

Importance of Good Pigments. — In conclusion, it is desir-
able to insist on the use of the very best materials of every
description, and, in paints especially, not to rely too much upon
chemical analysis and chemical purity. It is frequently a source
of amazement to the initiated to find that after an architect or
surveyor has made sure that he is getting the real article used
that he has specified, he is really obtaining a material which,
though chemically pure, is of so low a grade, and made in such a
careless manner, as to be of far less value, from a technical point
of view, than that which he has rejected as adulterated.
The writer remembers a case, in which, for a large amount of
indoor painting, where covering power was required to produce
a certain effect with a specified number of coats, a mixture of
§ best white lead and J Charlton white was being used, it
was condemned by the rather young and inexperienced architect.
The employer who had the job in hand was so disgusted at his
skill and honesty being called in question, that he at once
ordered a ton of white lead of a cheap grade, and produced the
warranty from the manufacturer; this was passed and used.
The work, however, looked 50 per cent, less satisfactory, while
the cost of material was just 40 per cent, less than it would have
been. The true way of ascertaining if the material is good is to
see how it behaves in working.

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Comparative Prices of Materials. — The following is a. list
of some of the principal materials now in use, with their pre-
sent market values. The prices are for the best genuine
articles, except when more than one price is s'ated for the same
article, in which case the two prices represent the extremes of
quality : —

White lead varies with the m

irket price of the metal

Present price, .

25/ to 16/ per

cwt.

Red lead,

21/ ,

Orange lead, .

32/ ,

Patent driers,

28/ to IS/ ,

Sugar of lead,

6d. per

lb.

Zinc powder driers,

•Id. .

Putty, ....

10/ per

cwt.

Zinc white in oil, .

36/ to 24/ ,

Note. — Its hulk is nearly d

3uble that of white

lead

Lead chromes in oil,

1/ to 9d. per

lb.

Drop black in oil, .

6d. ,

,, in turps,

9d. ,

Black paint, .

24/ per

cwt.

Prussian blue in oil,

2/6 pe

•lb.

Body blue, viz., blue paint,

6d. ,

Purple brown,

4d. ,

Raw Sienna, .

6d. ,

Burnt Sienna,

9d. to 6d.

Raw Umber, .

4d. to 2£d. ,

Burnt Umber,

6d. ,

Vandyke,

6d. .

No. 1 Brunswick greens, (id

per Lb. to 20/ per

cwt.

Quaker green,

6d. to 4d. per

lb.

Ochre yellow (English), .

36/ to 18/ per

cwt.

Real Oxford ochre or Italian,

48, ,

Indian red,

9d. to 6d. per

lb.

Venetian red, .

24/ to 18/ per

cwt.

Red oxide,

24/ to IS/ ,

Colours in powdt r—

Chromes,

1/3 to 6d. per

lb.

Zinc chromes, .

1/6 ,

Dry flake white,

6d. ,

,, zinc ,,

4d. ,

Vermilion,

2/9 „

,, best Chinese,

4/ ,

,, substitute,

1/ ,

Chinese red, .

6d. ,

Indian , ,

8d. to 4d. ,

Metallic ,, .

3d. .

Oxide of iron red, .

14/ per

cwt.

Venetian red, .

14/ to 10/ ,

'MATERIALS. 91

Verrailionette,

1/6 to 6d. per lb.

Carmine reds, (aniline' .

2/3 „

Finest carmines,

4/ per oz.

Dutch pink, .

4d. per lb.

Rose ,,

4d. „

Yellow ochre,

, 8/ per cwt.

Italian ,,

24/ „

Oxford ,,

28/ „

(best),

6d. „

Maroon lake, .

1/6 „

Yellow ,,

6/ „

Mahogany or Victoria lake,

2/6 ,,

Rose madder, .

4/ per oz.

Crimson lake, .

18/ to 3/ per lb.

Aniline lakes, .

10/ to 5/ ,,

Emerald greens,

l/to9d. ,,

,, tinted greens, .

6d. „

Mineral green,

2/ „

Royal greens, .

1/6 „

Quaker and bronze greens,

6d. to4d. ,,

Veronese green,

8/ „

Brunswick ,,

56/ to 22/ per cwt.

Chrome g' eens,

1/6 per lb.

Antwerp blue,

4/ „

Bremen ,,

3/ „

Azure ,, .

2/6 , , (used for cobalt. )

Celestial . ,,

6d. ,,

Chinese ,, .

2/3 „

Cobalt, ....

407 ,;

Indigo, ....

5/ „

Lime blues,

56/ to 28/ per cwt.

Prussian blue,

2/ per lb.

French ultra, .

5/ to 6d. „

Verditer,

1/6 ,,

Brown lake, .

2/6 „

Mahogany brown, .

9d. „

Purple brown,

36/ to 16/ per cwt.

Raw Sienna, .

6d. per lb.

Burnt ,,

8d. ,,

Raw Umber, .

18/ to 10/ per cwt.

Burnt ,,

24/ to 20/ „

Vandyke,

24/ ,,

Vegetable black,

9d. per lb.

Lamp black, .

28/ per cwt.

Drop ,,

9d. to 4d. per lb.

»j _ j ) • • •

10/ per cwt.

Terebine,

8/ per gallon.

Brunswick black, .

4/6 ,,

Pale paper varnish,

Hard oak >, ■

Copal oak,

Best pale copal,

14/

, , French oil,

18/

,, white marble, .

21/

PAINTING AND DECORATINC.

Spirit varnishes,

Knotting,

Mel hylated finish, .

French polisli,

Furniture varnish to dry in 3

Best black Japan, .

Japan gold sizo,

Flatting varnish,

Body carriage varnish,

Under coating body carriage vj

Best elastic finishing varnish,

Turpentine,

Linseed oil,

Boiled oil,

Turpentine substitutes and mi

Old gold size, .

Bronze powders,

Glass paper, .

Lump pumice stone,

Pumice powder,

Rotten stone, .

French chalk, .

Glue,

Soda,

Alum,

Patent size,

Double ,,

Concentrated size, .

Since this list was originally compiled a general advance of
10 per cent, must be allowed, and an additional advance of 20
per cent, on all colours derived from or dependent on copper.
Turpentine has advanced 50 per cent, and oil 25 per cent., but
the-e prices are again falling.

In connection with the testing of colours for staining power,
Messrs. Mander, of Wolverhampton, have recently issued a book
giving actual specimens of their principal colours painted full
strength, and also reduced by so many parts of white lead or
zinc white. This is an admirable plan, and altogether safeguards
the buyer, who has only to experiment likewise with the goods
supplied to find out whether the quality has been maintained.
It also permits the buyer to see exactly the effect of what he is
purchasing when in actual use.

7/ per r

allon.

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6/6

hours,

1(1/

15/

to 3/

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varnish,

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2/6

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lixtures,

t j

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to 2d.

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ream.

25/

per

cwt.

4d.

per

lb.

4d.

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to4d.

per

cwt.

16/

Id.

pet

lb.

2d.

Sd.

to 6d.

CHAPTER VI.

WALL HANGINGS.

ANGHSTGS have been used for the covering
up and embellishment of wall surfaces
from the earliest times. Probably the
first of the kind were skins of beasts.
Then with the introduction of weaving
came woollen and fibrous cloths, plain
or embellished by needlework or paint-
ing. Leather was a further development,
doubtless suggested by its greater dur-
ability, and the ease with which it could
be cleaned. Later came tapestry, stamped
and embroidered velvets, silks, and rich
stuffs of other material.
The use of hangings was doubtless originally suggested by the
necessity of keeping out draughts and colds in the rudely-
fashioned buildings of early date, and the dwellers in tents used,
and still use them for this purpose, as is exemplified to the
present day by the Nomadic tribes of the Soudan. The neces-
sity for a cheaper material than was in current use was evidently
felt, as no sooner was paper invented than it was used for the
purpose of wall decoration.

Wall Papers. — The first wall papers were introduced into

94 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

this country by William of Orange, and the first attempt at their
manufacture in this country followed immediately. They were,
of course, made in sheets, as the ability to make paper in con-
tinuous rolls was not acquired till quite a century later. They
were, moreover, stencilled, not printed ; the art of printing being
limited to smaller work, and being more costly at that date than
stencilling. Heavy taxation and duties considerably hindered
developments, and also checked the wholesome influence of
foreign competition ; a duty of as much as 5s. per piece being
enforced on all foreign papers imported, until a couple of genera-
tions ago.

Wall papers are broadly divisible into two great classes,
hand- and machine-printed.

A few are hand-painted, principally marbles, high-class friezes,
French scenic and landscape goods. Others are stencilled, or
partially stencilled, and partially printed and hand-coloured — a
rapidly improving and increasing class.

The difference between machine - printed and hand-printed
goods is seen by a careful examination of the margin, which in
hand- or block-printed goods shows the register of the repeat of
each block. The finish of the pattern may also be observed at
the ends of the piece, a portici of plain ground being left clear of
pattern at either end ; whereas in a machine-printed pattt rn
there is an unbioken continuity. An expert will also detect the
difference in colour surface left by the block and the roller.

The practical advantage gained by the hand printing is mainly
that the matching of the paper is truer, and the colouring more
even, an inseparable drawback to machine printing being the
slight unevenness of tension which occurs as the roil of the paper
passes round the printing machine rollers, and the tendency to
slight oscillation of the paper from side to side.

In block printing each colour or tint is printed separately.
In machine printing any number of colours can be printed at
one operation, the paper coming under the whole of the variously
tinted rollers one after the other before leaving the machine.

Qualities. — The different qualities of wall papers are many,
and are mostly distinguished in the trade by the class of grounds
on which they are printed. The number of printings, except in
hand-printed goods, has less influence in the assessment of cost
than would be supposed.

Varieties. — The cheapest class of wall papers are pulps, in
which the natural colour of the paper itself, either as ground or
ornament, forms part of the finished surface. Then we come to
grounds, in which the whole paper is coloured with a ground

WALL HANGINGS. 95

preparatory to printing the design upon it. The operation of
grounding the paper is done by machinery. Satins are papers in
which the grounds are polished or glazed before printing, by
rotary brushes actuated by machinery and the use of French
chalk. Micas, golden frosted, and crystal damask are papers in
which, while yet wet. the grounds are powdered with talc or
mica to produce a satiny sheen. The papers are rich and effective.
Embossed or stamped papers are those in which the ground or
pattern, or both, are stamped in relief. Papers which are
merely given an all over texture in stamping are termed grained
papers. Ingrain papers are pulps of a stout high quality, in
which additional colour and apparent texture are introduced by
the use of coloured fibre added to the pulp during the paper-
making process. Sanitaries are papers in which the printing is
done in oil colours upon a heavily sized or otherwise prepared
ground. These papers, owing to the oxidisation of the oil,
become brittle and carbonised if kept in stock long, and have an
objectionable gloss. Sanitums and vjashables, either the ground
or pattern, or both, are printed in a washable distemper and
spirit colour insoluble in water. They are an improvement on
Sanitaries as they do not have the glossy surface. Pegamoid
papers are a recent introduction, in which, after printing in
ordinary colours, the paper is treated with an elastic water
varnish prepared from "pegamoid." Metal papers, as their name
implies, are papers in which pattern or ground is printed in an
imitation gold, metal, or in bronze powder, and are not to be
confounded with papers in which the metal is lacquered and
varnished. Golds ; in these the real article, gold-leaf, is substi-
tuted for the imitation.

Flocks are divided into three classes. Plain, ordinary flock
has the pattern or ground of finely desiccated cloth known as
"flock." This is made to adhere to the paper by printing in a
tenacious gold size, and strewing or dusting the flock over the
size while it is tacky. Heavy flocks are those which are subjected
to flocking three or more times, thus making a raised pattern
some xs" to i of an inch high. These are used for painting, and
are frequently only printed in white for that purpose. Stamped
and relief flocks are those which are printed with several dock-
ings, but not from the same block, the relief being thus graduated
and alternated with the undulating surface of the pattern, and
afterwards stamped by hot dies with shaped relief.

Many varieties and combinations of these processes are to be
met with, making up an almost endless list of special effects and
special classes, many of which emanate from particular makers.

96 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Varnished papers are those sold ready varnished by machinery.
The varnish used is a quick drying, white hard spirit varnish
that has little durability in it. It is far better to varnish paper
after hanging.

Imitation leather papers are legion in their variety. Heavy
stamped paper pulps are sometimes printed before and some-
times after stamping, and are treated with metals, bronzes, and
lacquers in a variety of ways, all suggestive of stamped Cordovan
and Venetian leathers of the olden times. The description of
their manufacture does not fall within the scope of this chapter.

Dimensions. — English wallpapers are made in pieces 12 yards
long and usually 21 inches nett width — that is, from 22 inches to
'I'll inches before trimming its edges. These dimensions are a
curious reminder of the days of taxed sheets. The original
paper sheets were what is termed by stationers and papermakers
''imperial" size — viz., 22 x 31, and "royal," 24 x 19, ifcc The
former, then the largest size made, were generally used for
paper hangings. The pattern was usually stencilled, that being
the cheapest method of working. A sheet of the paper prepared
with oil and cut out formed the stencil, which was laid on each
sheet in turn, and the pattern stencilled through. Of course a
margin was left of about J an inch, and this gave 21 inches nett
for the pattern by 30 inches nett.

When continuous paper was first allowed to be used, the
Act of Parliament limited its use to one or other of these
breadths, a higher duty being payable upon the broader paper,
and the length of a piece was limited to a score of the 21-inch
by 30-inch blocks pasted together, which roughly made 12 yards
by 30 inches. At the same time, in France and Holland, the
royal size paper was mostly used, and the import duty in the
pieces was calculated upon a paper 18 inches nett in width — viz.,
the width of a sheet in royal. These old sizes have never been
successfully departed from.

Most English papers are 22 inches wide by 12 yards long.
Certain papers are made of 30-inch width, usually such as have
not to be printed, and in a few cases those that have to be
printed by hand. They embrace lining papers plain and tinted,
ingrain grounds, hand-painted marbles, and a few block-printed
goods of large scale. All French and German papers are still
made 18 inches wide and 9 yards long ; the exceptions to the
rule are similar in character to the exceptions to the English
rule of 22 inches.

Friezes and borders are made of almost every width, but
21 inches, IS inches, lOi inches, 9 inches, 7 inches, and

• V.

Plate 10a. -WALL PAPER, WITH COMBINED FRIEZE AND FILLING.

By Jeffrey & Co.
To face p. 96.]

WALL HANGINGS. 97

5 inches are amongst the most usual. They are generally so
arranged that one or more exactly occupy the whole width of a
22-inch paper.

Composite Papers. — The latitude allowed by modern machines
in printing irregular repeats has now brought about the use of
many specially-designed composite papers, on which the frieze
and filling are all upon one common ground. They require some
knowledge of design and taste in arrangement to properly hang
them. Some makers, principally American, have carried this
idea to great length with most successful decorative results.
Hand printers, like Messrs. Jeffrey, of London, have carried the
idea still further, and, as our illustration of their Standard Rose
design will show, with complete artistic success. Note how the
picture is hung to aid the general tout ensemble.

Comparison between Wall Paper and Painting. -The relation
of wall papers to painting has now become so intimate, that
no hand-book on painting could be compiled without reference
to them. Their commercial and practical value far outweigh
their apparent temporary character, which is more fanciful than
real. A papered wall will actually last longer in fair condition
under modern necessities of domestic life than a plain-painted
wall, which can only be used when in a passage, staircase, or
room not continuously in use; unless it be provided with a
varnished or enamelled dado, which can be renewed when
requisite without re-painting the upper portion of the walls.

Selection of Wall Papers. — The selection of papers for various
rooms and positions can only be dealt with briefly here. They
are subject, in as far as pattern and colour are concerned, to the
same laws as painted decoration, and, where necessary, will be
referred to in the chapter specially dealing with that subject.
The following may be taken as general rules : — Light papers
are conducive to health as opposed to dark ones. A cheerful
colour is better for one's surroundings than a sombre colour.
In deep-coloured wall papers the lustreless surfaces enhance
the gloom of shadows, and, for the same reason, tame and pale
washy tints and undecided patterns become tamer and lose
character. Washable and sanitary papers should be retained
for the especial use of kitchens and offices, or passages. They
do not look well on the raking walls of staircases, as they
intensify any inequalities on the surface of the wall. They may
be used as staircase dadoes, or for staircases in lodging-houses, &c,
where a great deal of wear has to be endured, with advantage.
The lustreless sanitum papers are better for fillings to staircase
walls. Bathroom and W.C., housemaids' closets, and sculleries

9X PAINTING AND DECORATING.

should be papered with a varnished paper, or varnished after-
wards. Sanitary [tapers varnish well if sized once after hanging.
Metal papers do not last long, especially in rooms where much
gas is used. Flocks should only be used in good rooms wheie
there is not much dust and gas — viz., in high-class houses. They
are very serviceable wear, but soon look dusty.

Hints on Choice of Wall Papers for Special Purposes. — Prefer-
ence should always be given to good, simple designs, in two or
at most three tints, where there are plenty of pictures and
furniture Lively patterns in many colours will assist to furnish
comparatively empty rooms. Caution must be shown in the
selection of spotty patterns. These patterns are most effective
in halls, staircases, and very large apartments, but are disastrous
to the decorative effect of ordinary dwelling and sleeping rooms.
Pure-tinted papers look clean and healthful ; they are specially
recommended for use in bedrooms. Delicate floral patterns have
the same effect, and are specially suitable for town houses, giving
by their contrast a pleasant reminiscence of other scenes. Floral
papers should be tabooed for country houses, where they come
into awkward and distasteful competition with nature.

Style must be borne in mind in the selection of more than one
paper in the same room ; not absolutely to the extent of main-
taining one pure historic style in the two or more papers, which
is often impossible with the selection at disposal, but at least to
the extent of decorative harmony and fitness.

In selecting a ceiling, frieze, filling, and dado, due contrast in
style of pattern must be maintained, without incongruity. If
the ceiling be geometrical, the filling should be a free trail or
scroll pattern, and the dado again in geometrical or perpendicular
lines. If the ceiling is spotted, then the filling will require to
be an all-over pattern, either geometrical or scroll, and the dado
should contrast in plan with the filling. Preference should be
given to geometrical dadoes, as having most consistency and sense
of support. The geometrical basis may be a straight or curved
one, upright, horizontal, or square, and the filling should partake
of a contrasting character. Plates 6 and 7 illustrate good con-
trasting arrangements of pattern. A larger scale detail design
should not be placed above a smaller, unless in a very lofty
room for freize or ceiling, or unless the more emphatic contrast
in colour counterbalances the weakness in pattern.

A relief pattern material of whatever scale will always be
stronger in effect than a printed paper, and must not be used
above a printed paper except it be for a high frieze, or there
be something in the colouring and design of the paper which

WALL HANGINGS. 99

makes it more pronounced in effect than the relief pattern
material.

Relievo Wall Hangings. — Turning now to relief materials, we
have an abundant variety both in material and design in the
market. The most useful are, perhaps, the Japanese leather
papers. These, as the name implies, are made in Japan, and are
usually metallic in colouring, full use being made of the rich
hues of Japanese lacquers. Paper pulp, occasionally assisted by
cotton-wool, is beaten into a matrix or mouhl, and then dried and
hardened, metalled, and lacquered. They are made 36 inches
wide, in most cases, but sometimes less, and are in 12-yar 1 rolls.
For dadoes they are rich and generally artistic in feeling. Po-
the upper walls of smoke-rooms and dining-rooms they may also
be used with confidence. For ceilings they appear a little
ineffective and out of place, lacking that shai'pness which suggests
rigidity and permanence. Certain materials used upon ceilings
seem to suggest that the ceiling is not duly supported and may
break away • this is one of them and flock paper is another.
This may be merely due to a nervous sensibility on the part of
those who think so, but it is a curious fact that if the ceiling is
panelled by mouldings, this objection to Japanese papers on
ceilings is at once removed by the sense of added support given
by the mouldings.

Anaglypta is a hardened paper pulp of extreme durability and
utility. It is capable of a variety of effective finishes which will
be dealt with later. It is usually 21 inches wide and 12 yards
long. It is pressed in iron moulds.

Cordelova is a similar substance but less hard and sharp,
accommodating itself to higher relief and to old style designs ; it
lacks the mechanical sharpness of anaglypta.

Tynecustle tapestry is also a very beautiful material. The name
tapestry is misleading; it resembles stamped leather in the low
relief, and modelled plaster in the high relief. It is in rolls of
any length required, and the usual width is 24 inches. It has
a canvas face which considerably enhances its commercial and
decorative value.

Tynecastle vellum is the same material with a vellum like
paper surface or face. It is cheaper than the tapestry.

All the above materials are made in panels of various sizes, as
well as in rolls, and the relief varies from 1 inch to ^ of an inch,
a material factor in governing the prices. Anaglypta is the
cheapest of these, and Tynecastle tapestry the most expensive.
This does not refer to art value, but merely to cost price.

Lincrusta Walton. — Lincrusta Waiton is a material made from

100 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

solidified oil spread upon a cotton, linen, or paper backing, and
pressed by rollers into relief patterns. It has great durability
and is a xoA material to withstand dampness if it is well fixed.
It is highly sanitary, having a flat back. It has, however, some
drawbacks as a material compared with those already mentioned.
It will sometimes shrink, leaving open joints; its effect is hard
and rather monotonous, the patterns being extremely sharp and
regular, and it deteriorates if kept long in stock. Its relief is
from j^ inch to |- inch in height. It is heavier in weight than
Cordelova, Anaglyp a, or Tynecastl ■. For vestibules, bath-
rooms, and conservatories, steam boats and rail cars, it is
unrivalled. It was the pioneer of all the others in the market.
It is made in widths of 18 to 20 inches, and also in special
shapes and sizes.

Several additional materials of the kind might be mentioned,
but need not take up our space as they differ little from those
already enumerated.

Fibrous Plaster. — Fibrous plaster — viz., plaster on canvas
backing — is now much used for friezes, but the fixing is a
plasterers' job rather than the painters'.

Sheet Metal Friezes. — Thin sheets of metal are being used for
stamped relief friezes, dadoes, and borders ; iron, bronze, brass,
copper, and latten are used for the purpose. They are fixed with
a cement and round-headed copper nails. The use of them
appears open to criticism, unless they are of some substance, as
they suggest a sham.

Jute Canvas for Wall Hangings. — Jute, woollen, and flax
cloths, both printed and stencilled, are a later innovation still,
and have the recommendation of texture and softness. Their
general introduction into first class work is so recent as to
scarcely justify criticism. The sanitary questions involved in
the pasting of such materials on the wall require consideration,
but in the straining after new and original effects this aspect of
the question appears to have been somewhat neglected and
overlooked.

Fabrikona. — Since the first edition of this book was written
there have been many attempts to overcome this sanitary
objection, and a material is now on the market known as
"Fabrikona" and by other names; it is a dyed and protected
canvas that will not harbour germs or insects. Fabrikona is
the best of these and is made in a wider range of shades than
any other. It is 36 inches, and in some cases 72 inches, in width,
and is sold in 12-yard rolls. It can be painted or stained after
fixing or when the first effect has become dirty nnd worn.

101

CHAPTER VII.

}f~*T~*

nwfp^

* ^ * _ * -fe & *

N the work of the paperhanger, two
primary qualities are essential —
cleanliness, and precision or exact-
ness.

Tools. — The paperhanger will re-
quire the following tools: — Scissors,
of which two pairs are desirable, one
pair with long blades about 12 inches
over all for trimming or edging, and
a pair of shorter ones, say 9 or 10
inches, for cutting the paper when
wet. Paperhaugers' scissors require
frequent washing, and are now ob-
tainable with nickel-plated blades
and japanned handles (Fig. 47) which
will be found a great advantage. They
may also be had with a 6-inch rule
engraved on the blade, but this does

not appear particularly advantageous, as the 2-foot rule should

always be at hand.

Rollers, of which he will require two, a 7-inch roller (Fig. 48)

for general use, and an edge or angle roller 1| inch wide with

102

I'AINTING AND DECORATING.

handle at one side (Fig. 49) to allow of its being readily intro-
duced into the angles. In the joints, a roller made of earthen-

Fig. 47. -Improved paper-hangers' scissors, nickel-plated blades aud
japanned handles.

ware, like a chair castor, is excellent. The rollers are of wood,
leather covered, and the general roller is additionally covered
with white flannel to offer a soft and clean suriace to the paper.

Fig. AS. - Paperhangers' roller.

Fig. 49. — Paperhangers' angle roller.

This flannel covering is added by the workman and renewed as
occasion requires.

Putting-on brushes are used for ceiling or sanitary paper, or

HANGING PAPER.

103

for papers which would be crushed by the use of the roller.
These are in two forms as here illustrated (Fig. 50). Many
paperhangers prefer the shoe brush shape, although this is not
specially made for the purpose.

A clicker's or shoemaker's knife to trim stout goods will be
necessary.

Other requisites are — a 2-foot fourfold rule, a 3-foot steel

Fig. 50. — Paperhangers' brushes.

edged, or solid steel straight-edge, which should be nickel-plated,
to prevent rust ; a plumbline and bob, a chalk line, a small
hammer, a screw-driver and pincers to remove nails, screws,
or small fixtures which are better papered under than cut
round

It is a good plan to have a clean sponge and water at hand in
case of accidental soiling.

Preparation of Walls. — Before papering walls, it is necessary
that they be properly prepared for the process. They should
present a slightly absorbent, even, and smooth surface, akin to
that of good notepaper ; that is, they should be more absorbent
than a painted surface, and less so than a distempered surface.

In re-papering old walls, it is necessary, both on technical and
sanitary grounds, that all the old paper be removed. This is
readily accomplished by well wetting the old paper, allowing
it time to saturate, and then using a paper scrape or broad

104 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

chisel knife ; a good one can be made by inserting a piece of
steel bedlath 5 inches wide into a wooden handle, and rivetting
it firmly through all. They can, however, be purchased of the
pattern here shown (Fig 51) for about Is. each.

The stripping of old walls is not usually done by the paper-
hanger, but by painters' labourers or apprentices, as it is a job
requiring little skill.

Care must be taken not to dig into the walls with the scraper,

Fig. 51. — Paperhangers' scraper.

or to damage the edges of the woodwork. When there are more
thicknesses than one, they may all be removed together if well
soaked. Flock or varnished papers and some sanitaries will
require hot soda water, which entails great care in its use, or
the skirting and frames will be sure to suffer damage.

After the paper has been scraped off, a great deal of paste
will still be adhering to the walls ; before this has time to re-dry
it should be scrubbed off with a short wash brush and warm or
hot water. If the walls are good, they will now be ready for
re-papering as soon as dry, but any holes, ifec, must be stopped
in the same way as for distempering, and all nibs and roughness
removed by glass paper — use 2 to 2^ glass paper on a cork
block, 1^ inches thick, and rub with a circular sweep.

Particular care must be taken to stop cracks or angles, and
the joints between woodwork and walls, top of skirting, and
round door frames. If the ceiling has been whitened after the
walls have been stripped, look well for spots and splashes, and
rub them level. If much stopping has been done, or the walls
are new, they will require sizing with a coat of weak size. A
little whiting may be added to take away the colour of the size.

Damp walls occur and frequently require treatment. A
temporary cure may be effected under paper, where such a
method could not be used on a painted or distempered wall.
The commonest method is to hang thin sheets of laminated lead
to the wall with stout paste, and tack down the edges with small
copper tacks. This is temporarily effectual, but if the cause of

HANGING PAPER. 105

dampness is not removed it will in time spread beyond the
limits of the impervious lead and find a way out. Another way,
useful for basement walls, or walls against the inside of which
the earth has been allowed to rest, is to chip off the whole of the
plaster affected, down to the bricks, and spread on the bricks a
coating of Limmer asphalt, or a mixture of pitch, tar, and brick
dust. The coating should be \ an inch thick ; strew the surface
with sharp gravel and then re-plaster with a quick setting plaster
or cement. All such cures must be accompanied by external
removal of the cause. If the outer wall is stone and the rain
percolates through it, a coating of red lead and linseed oil will
stop the influx. If the damp rises from the ground a damp
course must be put in, consisting of air tiles, slates, or pitch.
If the dampness results from bad drainage of surface water,
there must be a dry area made, and plenty of surface drain pipes
put in.

Measuring for Paper. — Assuming the room is ready for
papering, the requisite quantity of paper must be ascertained.
There is an' arithmetical method of doing this, which is theoreti-
cally accurate. There is also a rough working method, which,
from the dissimilarity of rooms and cases, gives more correct
workable results. The first method is to measure entirely round
the room, and to multiply the result by the height between the
skirting and cornice. This gives the area in square. feet ; divide
this by 9 to bring it into yards, and then by 7, the number of
super yards in a piece of English wall paper. The result is the
number of pieces required. There must be deductions made for
doors and windows, and 10 per cent, added for waste and
matching.

The second method is to take a stick 21 inches long, or a roll
of papei", and measure how many breadths of paper are necessary,
ignoring short ends above doors and under windows, and calling
all the rest full lengths. Mentally calculate how many of these
lengths can be cut from each piece of 12 yards, remembering
that any lengths between 8 feet and 10 feet will only go thrice,
allowing for matching and waste (most rooms are between these
two heights) ; divide the number of breadths required by the
number each roll will cut, and you have the number of rolls
required. Thus a room 9 feet high taking 42 breadths
requires 14 rolls.

Paste. — The paste must now be made. For ordinary work,
2 lbs. oi flour must be stirred into a smooth thin batter in cold
watei*, and boiling water poured upon it, still stirring the whole
time, till it assumes a transparent appearance and thickens. Take

]06 PAINTING ANO DECOBATINQ.

care to pour in the water gradually and evenly, and stir regularly
to avoid lurapiness. Some good pastry flour does not make good
paste. A rye Hour is good, and some kinds of wheat are better
than others. It is well to test it.

A table-spoonful of oil of cloves or peppermint will give a
pleasant odour to the paste and prevent it fermenting or sour-
ing ; or a very little carbolic acid will prevent its putrefying.
Alum is added to paste by some to strengthen and bind it, but
it is liable to destroy some of the colours used in paper
printing.

Paste boards and trestles will be required for pasting upon,
and a short, handy pair of steps to reach the top of the wall.

Edging Papers. — Trimming the paper is accomplished in
several ways. For oi'dinary work, many men sit upon a chair,
stretch their legs out stiffly in front of them, and, unrolling a
piece of paper, allow it to roll down to their feet, where it is
kept in position by the upturned toes ; they then commence
edging on the right hand side, re-rolling with the left hand ; a
cut with the shears in the right hand is succeeded by a roll up
with the left hand until the piece is completely edged. Great
rapidity and precision can be obtained by this method. Others
unroll the paper on the paste board and cut the two edges con-
secutively for the length of the board, then roll, slide on, and
unroll the next length, which is similarly treated.

A yet better method for good papers is to trim with a knife
and straight-edge. A piece of plate-glass or sheet zinc is neces-
sary to cut on to avoid damaging the board.

Both edges should always be trimmed, but in a thin paper
only one should be trimmed quite closely, the other edge may
be allowed an eighth full for lapping over. In trimming a plain
ground paper where there is no pattern to edge to, it is usual to
drive a needle point or shoemaker's awl into the edge of the
paper as a guide, or to cut a notch into the end with a tenon
saw as a guide to cut it.

Machine Trimmers. — Several forms of practical paper trimmers
are now in general use. The most practical is the Oates
machine, the latest pattern of which will accurately trim or-
dinary papers on both edges at the rate of 60 or 70 per hour.
The operator has only to exercise ordinary observation and
guard against faulty rolling or printing. The machine unrolls
and re-rolls the paper automatically at the same time as it trims
the paper, and, if the paper is correctly printed and rolled at the
outset, the action is purely mechanical. If the machine is kept
clean and in good order, it will last for several years of average

HANGING PAPER.

107

work. Additional fittings are now supplied which enables this
machine to trim relief materials.

The illustration clearly shows the construction of the machine.
A heavier make, with additional fittings, is supplied for Lincrusta
and heavy materials for which the "cut" is clean, and the relief
is not injured in the process; it also trims ordinary papers. As
in the case of all such improved methods, the adoption of the
machine has been much retarded by ignorant prejudice. An
enormous saving of time and an accuracy of edge are obtained
by its use that will immediately commend it to the scientific
and trained worker.

Fi^. 51« — Oates Machine Trimmer.

Fig. 516. — Oates Machine Trimmer.

Paper-trimming machines of several kinds, and suitable to
every class of hangings, may now be obtained. A descriptive
notice of the most usual will be found at the end of this chapter.
A good machine is that known as the Oates trimmer. Messrs.
Hamilton also supply a hand-wheel, known as the Simplex,
which is worked against a straight edge, and is much used in
both Canada and the United States.

Hanging. — The hanging must, be commenced on either side
of the window, or principal window, and worked round to the

108 PAINTING AND DKCOKATING.

door or other convenient stopping place. By this rule the
edges, when they lap, are against the light, and are not emphas-
ise 1 by any shadows. Some thought is necessary to avoid
showing where the papering is finished up, as this place will
not be likely to match perfectly. Over the door, or in the
angle of the chimney breast, is usually the place selected, and
.some men show great ingenuity in so dodging the pattern, that
no half leaves or half flowers are left exposed at the point of
juncture; a zig-zag cut will appear much less obtrusive than a
perpendicular joint.

The pajjerhanger requires an apron with a large waist pocket
or pouch, so that his scissors, plumb-line, rule, and roller are
always within reach of his hand ; and a pair of light steps just
tall enough to allow him to reach the top of his paper and to
take up no superfluous space.

The trimming completed, the breadths are now cut to their
proper lengths. Commence cutting them off face upwards upon
the board, and cut each short or long length as required, using
up the odd ends for the former purpose. Cut all that go one
way to the door, and see that they match properly, then turn
them over and arrange them, so that they are well back on the
board. Pull forward the first breadth and arrange it, so that
the bottom end and the matching edge just cover the end of the
beard, and the other edge is safely laid on the next breadth.
Lay the paste on evenly and swiftly with a good distemper
brush, a 2-knot or flat, working from the centre to the margins
in all directions, commencing from the bottom of the paper.
The left hand must be resting firmly on the paper to keep it
from slipping while it is being pasted. No portion of the board
will be exposed if the paper is laid as directed.

Pasting. — When pasting the last piece, one edge must
be finished first, and then the other brought over to the edge of
the board. The length of the board being but 6 feet, it will be
found that only a portion of the length has been pasted. The
bottom end is now lifted up and folded over, so that there is
room on the board to pull the remainder of the length up and
paste it. A few inches of the top end are now turned down so
as to facilitate handling, and the piece of paper is taken up and
placed upon the wall. Before rolling it down it is tested by the
plumb-line for uprightness. The same routine is followed with
the rest of the breadths, careful attention being paid to the
matching. The breadths must be split into two in turning
angles, as the angles of the room are never perfectly true. In
splitting breadths the upper part should be folded as well as the
bottom end; this lessens the length to be split, and enables the

HANGING PAPER. 109

operator to be guided by the visible pattern on the outside of
the folded length.

No papers should be hung with an absolutely butt or level
joint unless they are very stout, a far better result is obtained
by hanging thin papers with an eighth of an inch lap joint.

Under the best class of papers it is usual to use a white
lining paper, which improves the surface of the wall. It must
be hung in the same manner as an ordinary paper, with a little
lap at the edges, and when perfectly dry the laps must be well
glass-papered down. Walls or ceilings that are lined for painting
or distempering upon, are lined in the same manner.

In working round the room full breadths only should be used,
leaving the odd places to be filled in with the cuttings later on.
When nearing a door or window, if the portion required is more
than half a full breadth, a full one should be used, and the
portion not required cut out and hung somewhere to dry, so as
to be available for filling up some other small space. If only a
narrow strip is necessary, it is better to use a short length full
breadth sufficient to go over the door, and leave the lower part
to be afterwards filled in. Whether short or long breadths are
used, the match must be retained by always using the full
breadth ; even if it has to be split both portions must be used,
and this rule must be observed until the place of finishing is
reached. It matters not which side of the room is hung first,
but each side must in turn be started from the window, and
continued without a break in the pattern to the finishing point.

Matching. — The matching edge is always placed on the board
towards the operator, because in that position it is less liable to
accidental soiling with wet paste. Measurements for splitting
are also always more easily taken from the near edge. To obtain
a good match the operator should hold the paper with the pasted
side towards the wall, and the top few inches falling over the
fingers towards him so as not to soil the cornice or ceiling, and
while keeping the off-edge well away from the wall, gradually
approach the near or matching edge to the piece last hung ;
having secm*ed the accurate point of matching, in as far as
height is concerned, the forefinger should hold it firmly in place,
the paper being actually in contact with the wall at this point
only — a manipulation with the other hand of the off-edge will
now allow it to swing pendulum-like till the match is secured
all the way down, then, and not till then, can the paper be
allowed to settle against the wall. If this is carefully done it
becomes very easy to keep a vertical and true match. Do not
" handle " the paper, but allow it to attach itself to the wall of its

110 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

own weight and gravitation, after doiiii,' which it can be brushed
or rolled firmly on, and will not require any coaxing to get it
into its proper place. It is important that the same length of
time should elapse between the pasting and final hanging of
each breadth of the p&per, as when very damp with paste it
expands and interferes with a true match being obtained.

When hanging very short pieces, as dado or frieze lengths, it
is often advisable to paste two pieces to start with and hang the
first one, and then paste a third and hang the second, and so
continue, thus giving a little more time for each length to
become soaked and pliable.

It is very necessary to be sure, methodical, and regular, and to
go about the work without hurry or confusion.

Some papers by reason of their design do not repeat hori-
zontally, but diagonally. These are known as "drop patterns."
It will often happen that such patterns create great waste in
matching on account of the length of the repeat. This can fre-
quently be avoided by cutting the lengths alternately from two
rolls of paper instead of consecutively from one roll at a time.
(See diagram, Plate 8).

The first length hung must be plumbed truly upright, or the
pattern will run out either up or down as the case may be at the
ceiling line, and at every few lengths the plumb-line must be
used as a check. When cutting off the top and bottom, the line
is marked by running the point of the scissors blade along the
angle, at the same time keeping the end off the ceiling or skirt-
ing with the other hand. Be guarded against allowing the
pasted paper to touch the paint work, skirting, or architraves,
and if it does so, wipe off the marks with a damp, clean sponge
at once, or it will damage the paint.

Lining Papers — Lining papers are used as a ground for dis-
tempering upon, and for protection of the more costly papers.
When used for the former purpose they should be trimmed to
remove the burred edge, and hung with a very slight lap ; but
when merely used to improve the surface of the wall for a better
paper they may be hung with a butt or even joint; or if lapped,
the lap must be well glass-papered down before the finishing
paper is put on. Lining papers must be allowed to dry thoroughly
before the other paper is put over them or blisters will result.

Papering Ceilings. — Tn papering a ceiling it is necessary to
have two steps and a plank, so that the entire length cau be put
up at one operation ; for large ceilings two men, or a man and a
lad, will be desirable. Commence near the light and work from
it ; let the joints run across the light, not from it. If working

HANGING PAPER. Ill

without assistance, a straight-edge or T-square is useful to sup-
port the paper.

Paperhanging upon painted walls is very liable to turn out
unsatisfactorily, as the paste is a strong solvent for paint. A
good plan is to hang first with stout lining, using a paste made
with glue size and ordinary paste, but not too strong. The
glue size will set quickly and prevent the action of the paste
upon the paint ; stout buff paper in sheets will answer well as a
lining, but not newspapers, as the ink often works through the
top paper.

Before hanging the lining paper the wall must be wrell washed
with soda water and when dry rubbed down with glass paper, to
give a key for the paste. Take care that the joints of the top
paper do not come immediately over those on the under lining.

Lining Cracked Ceilings. — Badly cracked ceilings or walls
may be lined with unbleached calico or sheeting. This is
applied upon" a good heavy coat of glue, size and paste laid on
freely, and the canvas stretched tightly and well rolled or
brushed into it ; a few tinned tacks driven in at the edges serve
to keep the canvas tight while drying out, and the surface is
sometimes well-sized while it is still wet with the paste. The
joints should be closely butted, and the selvedge edges cut-off
the calico. Calico 1 yard wide will be found easy to hang, and
wide enough for most purposes, but for ceilings 72-inch sheeting
is better. The hanging of wide sheeting requires care to avoid
blisters or creases. It is well to have the canvas lightly tacked
to a rod at each end, so that it can be held taut while rolling
and brushing down the central portion. If the pieces are cut a
few inches longer than, requisite the rods can be cut away instead
of untacking the canvas.

Panelling and Borders. — Panelling and borders must be
set out in pencil on the wall prior to hanging ; borders should
not be hung on the face of the filling paper, but a space should
be left for them.

If the border is set out with a soft black lead pencil, when the
filling is hung the line of setting out will transfer itself to the
pasted back of the paper, and no further guide for cutting off
the filling to its proper length will be found necessary. To keep
borders straight they should be placed in position at both ends,
and then by a gentle pressure of the palm of the hand stretched
taut before rolling down.

Removal of Fittings. — All fixtures that can be removed,
should be ; as a far neater finish is got than can be obtained by
cutting round them.

112 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

This particularly refers to bell and gas fittings, shelf brackets,
and picture hooks. Care must also be taken to wash down all
fixtures such as marble mantels before papering, especially close
to the wall where the paper will finish against, as this cannot
be properly done after the paper is hung.

Accidental soils or stains upon a new paper can best be
removed by the use of clean cold water and a corner of sponge ;
to touch up the spot some of the same colour should be worked
up with water from an odd piece of the same paper and applied
with a camel-hair brush. Sanitary papers can be sponged freely
without injury. Flock and satin or mica papers should on no
account be brushed, as they will show every mark ; the roller
is far safer to use. Plain grounded papers also show any undue
use of the brush, especially when hung at a diagonal angle with
the light, as on a staircase. The roller will leave no trace if
properly used and not allowed to catch or drag. Take care that
the paper is pressed well into the angles of the wall, or it will
shrink and draw across the angles. Stamped or embossed papers
require to be hung quickly without much soaking, or the em-
bossed pattern will work out and the paper match badly. If a
paper is found to be a bad matching paper, it is well to see that
it is accurately matched at about the level of the eye, as any
slight mismatch near ceiling or floor will be less observable.
Before cutting up the lengths of paper, look over the rolls and
see that they are all of one tint, as slight differences due to the
time of printing are sometimes apparent. If so, they must be
sorted up ; those of one tint kept for the light side of the
room, and those of the other for the dark or shadow side, then
the difference will not be noticed unless it is very great.

All paint work must be dry before papering, and all the edges
that come in contact with the paper must be finished. The
parts that do not touch the paper can be finally coated after the
paper is hung.

Hanging Relief Materials. — The various relief decorations
are hung in a similar way to paper, except that they require
trimming on a piece of glass or on a sheet of zinc, with a steel
straight-edge and knife. They will require a close, even, butt
joint.

G-lue Paste : Paste for Anaglypta. — Glue paste is used. It
is made in the following manner : — To half a bucket of paste
made in the ordinary way, add, while the paste is hot, 1 lb. of
strong glue; ^ lb. Venice turpentine may be added instead of the
glue, or a i-lb. packet of concentrated size may be stirred in
while the paste is very hot.

HANGING PAPER. 113

The manufacturers of these goods all supply special instructions
for fixing their own materials. Careful planning is necessary,
and good setting out before cutting up the material, so as to
avoid waste.

Anaglypta requires soaking with paste before hanging. Thin
paste is applied freely to the back of the material, and it is set
aside until it becomes pliable.

Cordelova does not require much soaking, neither does Tyne-
castle tapestry or vellum.

For Japanese leathers, the glue paste may be half the strength,
and for Lincrusta Walton it must be fully strong.

If Lincrusta is hard it may be placed in a warm place to soften.

None of these materials may be rolled, or the relief will be
damaged.

Hollow-backed materials, like Cordelova or Anaglypta, may be
strengthened by using paste mixed with plaster of Paris to fill up
the recesses before putting on the wall. It can be applied with
a palette knife. Dirt or paste can easily be washed off any of
these with soap and water. Lincrusta may be cleaned with
turps.

Cordelova and Tynecastle vellum are lightest in weight and
best for ceiling work. Anaglypta and Lincrusta both stand
wear well.

Some notes on the selection of pattern will be found in a later
chapter.

Shrinking. — The trouble experienced in papering upon a
painted wall has been now met by the introduction of a material
which is better than ordinary clairecolle as a preparation before
papering. It is known as klingcona, and appears to be a vege-
table glue modified in some special manner so as to be more stable
and less gelatinous than ordinary glue. It is made by the
manufacturers of Fabrikona, and was brought out to meet the
objectionable crawling and shrinking that followed the use of
Fabrikona over paint or varnish.

The Ridgley Hand Trimmer is a useful plane-like instru-
ment that is made to run along a metal straight edge. It trims
paper cleanly, whether wet or dry, and is of great assistance in
trimming lengths, panels, &c, which the larger machine will not
do so well.

In place of using the scissors for cutting the wet paper round
casings, upon skirtings, cornices, &c, the use of roller cutters is
now becoming general. They have long been in common use in
America. The illustrations fully explain themselves.

11 1

PAINTING ANU DECORATI XO.

"Ideal" Casing Knife. — With these knives the paper can be trimmed
on the wall while wet.

"Standard" Wheel Knife for Angle Cut tiny. — Convenient to use with
any straightedge, as the hand is held clear.

Paperhnntjc.r* Knife for Cutting on the Board.
Fig. 51 r. — American Papei hangers' Knives.

Fig. old. — Ridgely Hand
Trimmer.

These are made by
the Ridgely Trimmer
Company in no less
than three dozen pat-
terns, and special
straight-edges, edged
with brass and with a
square half-inch edge,
are supplied to use
with both the knives
and their patent trim-
mer.

115

CHAPTER VIII.

is a belief fostered by those out-
side the painting trade that if
the colour is only mixed ready
for use by a practical man, it is
easy enough to make a practical
job. Although this is far from
being a correct view, it is
nevertheless perfectly true that
unless the colour is properly
mixed no man can make a
practical job with it.

The mixing of paints can
rarely be made the subject of
definite recipes, each particular
case of ground, finishing, and
intermediate colour must be
governed by the particular cir-
cumstances of its own case, and more harm is done by cut and
dried instructions on this point than good. The bon mot attri-
buted to Opie that colour must be mixed "with brains," contains
all that can be said on the subject without fear of contradiction.

11G PAINTING AND DECORATING.

In order to give an idea of the methods adapted for particular
purposes, it will be necessary to give a few formulae, but they
must be taken to apply strictly to the conditions associated with
them here ; it is of gi'eat importance that all the conditions of
the work in hand should be carefully considered before adopting
any of them.

The compounds will first be dealt with irrespective of tints,
colours, or grounds, it being inferred that they are required for
a good average surface of a kind usually treated with the
material or pigment under consideration.

Mixing Clairecolle. — Clairecolle, or size preparation for under-
coating for distempering, is made in the same manner as the
distemper itself, next described, but the proportions of the
ingredients are different. To make 2 gallons, take 1 lb. of good
glue, or 4 lbs. of patent size, jelly form, or 1 lb. of concen-
trated powder size ; dissolve it in enough water to make 7
quarts ; and add 1-J- lbs. of whiting soaked in a quart of water.
When alum is added the quantity will be 1 ounce of powdered
alum.

Mixing Distemper. — Distemper, also called whitewash, and
size colouring. Take two clean buckets, and put into the first
some good whiting broken into lumps not larger than walnuts.
Pour upon it, without agitation, clear cold water more than
enough to cover it ; allow it to stand awhile until thoroughly
soaked ; then pour off ihe water carefully, and stir with a stick
or bat to ensure that it is quite soaked through, and to break
it up. It should now be of the consistency of very soft clay,
batter, or mud — viz., it should be just possible to stir it with the
exertion of some force. Now warm some jelly size, about half
as much in bulk as you have of the batter, and of a strength
that would, when cold, turn out of a mould and keep its shape —
viz., the strength of an ordinary table jelly as served up. The
size must not be boiling hot. Slowly pour this, part at a time,
into the batter, stirring the while, until it is all in. This will
reduce the batter to the consistency of cream. Stir it thoroughly,
and strain, while hot, through a distemper strainer, or apiece of
coarse muslin, cheese or butter cloth, into the clean bucket.
Cover it up and set aside to get cold. When cold it is ready for
use and should present the consistence of thick clotted cream.
Before use beat it up, as the whiting has a tendency to settle
while cooling, and the size to rise to the top. This may be over-
come by an occasional stir whilst cooling, which will also prevent
skin or scum arising. The tinting colours may be added either
before or after the size, but before straining. They should be

COLOUR MIXING. 117

wetted up to the same consistency as the whiting, and, prefer-
ably, added prior to the size. The quantity of size to whiting
depends upon the exact amount of water in the whiting, which
in apparently dry whiting, varies considerably. If the method
of proportioning given above is closely followed, any little excess
or deficit of water is corrected by the amount of size added. If
the proportions are governed by the consistence at various stages
a lot of needless weighing and measuring is also avoided, and
the results are more uniform and workable. Too little size
fails to bind the pigment, and when dry it will rub off on the
hands and clothes. Too much size will cause the distemper,
when dry and heated, to flake, crack, and curl off. Many
writers advocate the use of the hands for mixing distemper.
The custom has the sanction of age and prejudice, but after
mature consideration it must be condemned as an unnecessary
and uncleanly habit.

To thoroughly mix distemper having an excess of staining
matter in it, pass it twice, or even thrice, through a wire-gauze
strainer. A distemper strainer may be quickly made by crossing
the ends of four pieces of wood and nailing them together like an
Oxford frame, and tacking a piece of canvas over it so as to hang
down a little in the centre like a shallow bag.

Some workers prefer when mixing distemper to use the size
in a cold — i.e., jelly — form. The main difference in effect is, that
there is not such an intimate commingling of the ingredients,
and, consequently, the mixed distemper slips over the work more
easily, the particles of size acting as lubricators. The finished
work done in this way can never look so fine and solid as when
a thorough intermingling of the size and the pigment has taken
place. Distemper mixed with chilled size is, however, useful on
a hot or porous ceiling, or one that has been previously coated.

Alum is sometimes added to distemper. This has a solvent
action on the size, and reduces it to a liquid state, so that if it is
added to cold size distemper, it produces the same result as if the
distemper had been made from liquid size, and had failed to
" chill." The action of alum upon certain pigments is bad, and
its use in distemper is not recommended unless under special
conditions.

For deep colours it is merely necessary to substitute a pig-
ment, as ochre, Venetian red, &c, for either the whole or a
part of the whiting. If the pigment is a fine powder colour
it will not require soaking, it only needs mixing on a slab or the
paint stone, to the same consistence as described for the whiting
by the addition of cold water. Never add dry colour to dis-

118 PAINTING AND DKCOHATING.

temper, even in small quantities, without well rubbing it up in
water, or the particles will be sure to work up in streaks when
laying on. The addition to distemper of various matters for
special conditions of work will be found treated of in the chapter
upon distempering.

Distemper should not be strained through an excessively tine
strainer, as the particles of whiting which give body, luminosity
and purity of tint are not so small as to pass through a very fine
one, unless the whiting used is of an exceptionally finely-ground
quality.

Mixing Paint. — Paint in light tints for general use, from a
white-lead base are recommended to be prepared as follows: —
Take two clean cans, kettles or pots, into one put a little linseed
oil, and whirl it round to oil the sides of the can and prevent
the white lead sticking to it. Add enough white lead for the
work in hand. With a bat or flattened stick or spatula, stir into
this enough raw linseed oil to make a smooth, raw paste, add
patent driers about one-twentieth in bulk of the paste-lead, and
mix well in ; continue to add oil until the stick will not stand
upright in the centre of the paint without carefully balancing.
Then add any staining colours (colours ground in oil) that are
required. If a large quantity is added, of course additional
driers will be requisite also. Thin with turpentine, to a thick,
creamy consistency, and strain through a fine wire gauze or a
piece of muslin into the other clean can. It may here be noted
that for all general purposes metal gauze strainers are better
than any other, because they break up the paint and separate
the particles as it passes through. A little oil or turps as
desired will be added to the colour when ready for use.

In the foregoing directions, weighed proportions are purposely
avoided, as so much difference exists in the consistency aud
weight for bulk of the materials used, and when the proportions
are made to appear interdependent on bulk and consistency
these differences correct themselves in the working out.

Contradictory as it may seem, the old-fashioned rule-of-thumb
methods in this way become very reliable, even more so than
scientific measurement and weight ; as all scientific calculations
must be based on exact and similar conditions ; which are not
met with in the ordinary commercial materials used by the
painter.

For mixing a small quantity of this class of colour, the white
lead should be put out upon the paint stone and worked up with
the palette knives to the same consistency, and by the same
rules. It may be strained directly from the stone. In mixing

COLOUR MIXING. 119

colours on the paint stone far greater command is obtained over
them, and a more thorough commingling of the different in-
gredients is possible ; moreover, when matching tints, the
advantage of having the whole bulk of colour spread out on view
is considerable.

Zinc white paint for general purposes and Charlton white are
mixed in the same manner; but as they will absorb more thinners
they will require more driers, and must be thinned with a mix-
ture of two- thirds linseed oil and one-third turpentine where oil
alone is specified for the white lead paint. Zinc or powder
driers should be used instead of the patent driers. This is pre-
ferable, though not essential.

If white lead in bulk is very unusually thin and oily, the oil
may in pai*t be abstracted from it by thinning it with turpentine
and allowing it to stand. The oil will rise to the top and may be
poured off.

For mixing colours in the keg or bucket, or in cans or pots,
sticks or spatulas may be made and kept. A flat stick, smooth
and rounded at the handle end into a bat shape, of hard, tough
wood, ranging from £ inch by 1 inch to 1| inches by 3 inches,
and about double the depth of the receptacle they are to be used
in, will be what is required. An ingenious iron stirrer, with
numerous holes in it, is procurable, and is a common tool on the
Continent and in America. Several good mixing machines have
also been placed on the market recently, though, as the tendency
is to send out paints in a more finished condition than formerly,
they are not often necessary, and inasmuch as the best method
of thoroughly mixing paint is to well strain it, and all paint
should be strained, the preliminary stirring will generally be
found sufficient.

The following recipes are for paint, irrespective of tint or
colour, and are recommended for special purposes. They must
be mixed by the methods previously described, and will be
found to provide for most sets of circumstances. Their adoption
for particular work must be governed by proper and careful con-
sideration of the exact conditions of work and requirements in
each individual case.

The differences are mostly in the proportion of oils and driers
used. All weights and measures are approximate, and a little
variation in the substance and quality of the raw material used
will sometimes be found to upset the exact proportions given,
which must be adopted with reason and common sense, and
checked by the consistency described as necessary in the first
method of mixing given. As a general rule, the turpentine

120 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

should be added last as it rapidly evaporates, and its legitimate
effect upon the paint is thus lost. When possible, it should be
added immediately before use.

Effects of Oils and Turps in Mixing Paint.— Many working
painters have a lazy habit of throwing in the turps first, because
it saves time in beating up the white lead — i.e., it dissolves the
paste. It should be borne in mind that the action of oil and
turpentine as thinnings differs, not only in the drying result,
but also in the immediate result, and that in a somewhat
peculiar and irregular manner. As oil is added to colour, it
changes into a soft, butter- like consistency at first, and then
gradually becomes more and more liquid, soft and silky in work-
ing. The flow or spreading capacity is increased exactly in pro-
portion to the oil added. If turps be added at various stages it
will have different effects at different stages. When added to
stiff colour it does not appear at first to thin the colour as oil
would do; but acting upon the oil, it produces a paste hardly less
stiff, though lighter in weight than before. When the quantity
of turps added is increased gradually, the mass becomes puffy
and appears aerated, intractable, and loses spreading capacity as
the turps is still added. At a certain stage it will suddenly
become limpid, and thins more rapidly than would be expected
from the quantity of turps put in. If the colour is thinned to a
creamy consistency with oil before any turps is added, and turps
be then added, the thinning effect at once asserts itself. If the
turps be added first, and the oil later, a slight tendency to floc-
culence is noticeable in the colour, and it works less tractably
than if the oil had been first added, until it has stood for a couple
of days, by which time a more complete conglomeration appears
to have taken place.

Proportion Table for Paints.
Paints for Various Purposes.

Priming on new deal or pine.

White lead, 7 lbs. Raw linseed oil, 11 ounc.:

Patent driers, 7 ounces. | Turpentine, 7 ounces.

Another priming.

White lead, 7 lbs.
Yellow ochre in oil, 1 11
Pat cut driers. ? Hi.

Linseed oil (raw), h pint.
Turpentine, \ pint.

Plate 11.— PANELS DESIGNED FOR MONOCHROME PAINTING.
To face p. 120.]

COLOUR MIXING.

121

Priming for indoors to be finished in white.

White lead, 7 lbs.
Red lead, 4 ounces.
Patent driers, 4 ounces.

Linseed oil (raw), 8 ounces.
Turpentine, 9 ouuces.

Priming for outside, dark finish (old recipe)

White lead, 7 lbs.
Black lead, 1 lb.
Patent driers, i lb.

Another (modern ditto).

White lead, 7 lbs.

Lamp black in turps, ^ lb.

Patent driers, f lb.

Boiled linseed oil, 10 ounces.
Turpentine, 7 ounces.

Boiled linseed oil, j pint.
Turpentine, J pint.

Priming on oak or other hard wood, and on work which has
been stripped of former paint by burning with lamp or charcoal
brazier.

White lead, 7 lbs.
Red lead, I lb.
Patent driers, \ lb.

Linseed oil, 7 ounces.
Turpentine, 12 ounces.

Priming on work that has been pickled off with alkali and
treated with acid.

White lead, 7 lbs.
Red lead, 4 lbs.

Linseed oil, 6 ounces.
Turpentine, 16 ounces.

Second coat colour for inside new wood-work, or as first coat
on old work that is in good condition, or third coat if to be
finished in oil.

White lead, 7 lbs.

Red lead, 2 ounces to 6 ounces,
according to the required
depth of finishing colour.

Driers, Jib., regulated by amount

of red lead,
Linseed oil, S ounces.
Turpentine, 9 ounces.

Second coat for outdoor wood-work.

White lead, 7 lbs.

Red lead, \ lb.

Patent driers, 5 ounces.

Boiled oil, 9 ounces.
Turpentine, 5 ounces.

First coat for new plastered walls.

White lead, 7 lbs.
Red lead, 2 lbs.
Patent driers, \ lb.

Second coat on same.

White lead, 7 lbs.
Patent driers, \ lb.

Raw linseed oil, 1 pint.
Turpentine, 1 pint.

Raw linseed oil, f pint.
Turpentine, \ pint.

122 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Oil coat on walls prim' fco flatting.

White lead, 7 lbs. j Raw Linseed oil, 14 ounces.

Patent driers, g lb. Turpentine, 2 ounces.

Ground colour for graining upon in oil, outside work.

White lead, 7 lbs. Boiled linseed oil, 8 ounces.

.Stainers, \ lb. Turpentine, 5 ounces.

Patent driers, 6 ounces.

If raw oil he substituted for boiled oil. as sonic prefer, increase the
patent driers to 9 ounces.

(J round colour for graining upon in oil on inside work.

"White lead, 7 lbs.
Stainers, ?. 11).
Patent driers. .', lb.

Raw linseed oil, 8 ounces.
Turpentine, G ounces.

Ground colour for graining upon in water colour or for crayon
marbling, outside work.

White lead and stainers, 7 lbs. Raw linseed oil, 5 ounces.

Terebine or liquid driers, 3 ozs. | Turpentine, 7 ounces.

Ground colour for water graining, inside work.

White lead and stainers, 7 lbs. Raw linseed oil, 4 ounces.

Terebine, 4 ounces. Turpentine. 8 ounces.

Flatting for interior walls.

White lead, 7 lbs. Turpentine, 14 ounces.

Patent driers, J lb.

First coat on new compo, outside work.

White lead, 7 lbs. Boiled oil, 30 ounces.

Red lead, 7 lbs. Turpentine, 7 ounces.

Second and third coats on same, and also for first coat on pre-
viously painted outside walls.

White lead, 7 lbs.
Red lead, £ lb.
Patent driers, £ lb

Uoiled oil, 10 ounces.
Turpentine, 6 ounces.

Finishing coat for outside oil colour work or compo, stone,
iron, &c.

White lead, 7 lbs. Boiled linseed oil, 13 ounces.

Driers, 2 ounces. | Turpentine, 3 ounces.

COLOUR MIXING. 123

Finishing coat for outside wood-work in plain colours, glossy
finish.

White lead, 7 lbs. Boiled linseed oil, 12 ounces.

Patent driers, 3 ounces. Turpentine, 4 ounces.

The last two are greatly improved by the use of 4 a pint of good outside
oak varnish in lieu of half the boiled oil and turpentine.

Colour for last coat before flatting wood-work.

White lead, 7 lbs. . I Haw linseed oil, 13 ounces.

Patent driers. ^ lb. Turpentine, 3 ounces.

Flatting colour for walls.

White lead, 7 lbs. I Turpentine, 1 pint.

Patent driers, 2 ounces. Paw linseed oil, 1 ounce.

Bastard flatting — egg shell, glass, flat finish.

White lead, 7 lbs.
Japauners' gold size, 2 ounces.
Turpentine, 12 ounces.

Pale copal varnish, 2 ounces.
Boiled linseed oil, 1 ounce.

Note that a given quantity of turpentine will make a given
quantity of white lead thinner than the same quantity of oil
will do. In all these recipes, Silox, zinc oxide, or Charlton
white may be substituted for white lead, the former for external
and the latter for internal work. Where this is done, the quan-
tity of thinnings must be increased by about one-third, and the
patent driers replaced by a zinc drier or by liquid driers.

Drying Action of Paints. — The whole of the foregoing
recipes are based on the assumption that paste white lead is
used, ground in good linseed oil — that is, in oil Avhich is neither
unduly old nor too new. The circumstances under which
boiled oil is used should be specially noted. Boiled oil should
be used for most outside work, as it stands the weather better
than raw linseed, retaining its gloss for a more lengthened
period. It should also be used for such colours as are bad driers,
or are too dark to stand the addition of a white drier without
loss of purity of hue, though for this latter purpose terebine
and liquid driers may be used. The boiling of the oil has
increased its body and altered its structure to such an extent
as to make it more elastic ; that is to say, that while its drying
has been hastened by the addition of manganese, the thickening
that has also taken place, prevents its reaching so extreme a
point of hardness after it has taken up a certain amount of
oxygen as the raw linseed oil which goes on oxygenising for an
indefinite period.

124 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

The addition of oxides and other agents for the pui-po.se of
increasing its drying powers, are productive of acidity in the
oil, and detrimental to its protective power, its gloss, and
its permanency. An excess of driers added to oil paint
is, therefore, extremely detrimental. It causes the drying to
take place in an unnaturally hasty manner, so that the outer
surface of the paint is rendered impervious to the air before
the paint underneath has taken up sufficient oxygen to harden
it. This partially sealed - up paint never properly hardens
afterwards.

Oil and Turpentine Substitutes. — In paints used for the
rougher class of work, some of the turpentine preparations
prepared from petrol are useful for the purpose of cheapening
the product, but in no case is the result quite as good as when
pure turpentine is used. Oils other than linseed are also admis-
sible, but do not equal linseed oil in protective value. Both
turps and oil substitutes have a tendency towards greasiness, and
require additional driers or the addition of a varnish gum to
harden them. In the case of turps the evaporation is complete,
but in the case of substitutes there is always a greasy, gummy
residuum

Action of Raw Oil versus Boiled Oil.— Boiled oil is the
proper oil to use in all cases where japanners' gold size is used
as a drier, or where liquid driers, varnishes, or other forms of
i: cooked oils" are also used. There cannot be a proper intimate
commixture between raw oil, and any form of cooked oil, without
the intervention of heat, especially in cold weather. Turpentine,
on account of its solvec t power and penetration, will combine
with these oils and varnishes without the use of artificial heat.

In drying, the commercial boiled oil has a tendency to darken
rapidly ; indeed, exposure to the air or light will darken the oil
itself. Raw linseed oil, on the contrary, will bleach when exposed
to light; hence its great value for pale tints of colour. The
better quality of boiled oil, which has been boiled without the
addition of drying agents, has not this fault to the same degree,
but it is not wise to use it for whites.

Protective Agency in Paint. — It must be borne in mind
that in the mixing of all paints the dry pigment must be
regarded as mere colouring matter and body. In only a few
cases has it any real protective power, and this principally in the
staple white lead and its relatives. That the protective powers
of even wdiite or red lead only comes into operation when mixed
with an oil, and saponification is produced, must also be well
remembered. It is the effect of the oil upon the pigment that

COLOUR MIXING. 125

makes the oil into a protective skin or shell. A volatile oil,
without much residue, combined with a pigment does not act in
this manner. Volatile oils, such as turpentine, are only used to
dilute the paint in order that it may be conveniently spread.
They will not even bind the particles together, or prevent their
rubbing off' at a touch as soon as they have evaporated. Linseed
oil (either raw or boiled, or in some compound form) or some other
oil of the same class is, therefore, a necessity for all paint in
sufficient proportion to form a skin or mass, and to bind the
particles cohesively together.

General Hints on Paint Mixing. — On no account must dry
colour in powder be thrown into the can and stirred into the oil.
It will have little value as a paint when thus served. Always
mix colour either ground in oil or in turpentine. If the colour
be in powder form, and is a very impalpable powder, it may be
rubbed up on the paint slab with a palette knife before being
put into the can. When dry colour is not properly mixed before
use, the particles will continue to absorb the oil after the paint
is spread, resulting in a dead and unequal surface, besides in
some cases working up stronger and streakily when the work is
in progress.

In mixing a number of tints for the same job, prepare or thin
down, or partially thin down enough white for the whole job
prior to making the separate tints. It is helpful to the colourist
to tone this mass of white to the palest tint he is using, so that
unity and harmony may run through the whole of the tints used.
In a room where yellows and i-eds predominate, a pale cream
may be used as the base colour for making all tints from, and in
a green room the white may be toned a pale green tint, in a
blue room a pale blue tint, &c. In making the various colours
for a room it is always advisable to, as far as possible, restrict
oneself to the use of one yellow, one red, and one blue. This
also contributes to the unit}7 of the colouring as a whole.

Colours Recommended for Tinting and Staining Paints. —
The colours used for tinting should be the cheap staple colours,
as ochres, earth reds, Prussian or common ultramarine blue
unless it is quite impossible to produce the required colours
from them. This is not recommended for economical reasons
only, but because such tints are more pleasing and, generally,
more harmonious. Avoid the use of such colours as browns or
blacks for lowering the tones of brighter colours. Colours
should be toned by the addition of their complementaries. Thus
to lower the tone of a yellow, add blue and red. To lower a
blue, add red and yellow, and to lower a red, add blue and

126 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

yellow. By doing so purity and luminosity are retained, and
only the hue is affected. The addition of Umbers, &c, lowers
the standard of purity in a greater degree than it affects the
hue.

Opaque and Transparent Pigments. — Colours are divided
into two great classes, those that are opaque and those that are
transparent, or more properly speaking, translucent. Some
colours are neither the one nor the other, but come midway
between them.

An opaque colour may be described as a colour that has body;
that appears about the same colour when mixed with oil as it
does when dry ; and that has the same appearance whether laid
on thickly or thinly. A transparent colour has no body or
covering power, is deepened considerably by the addition of oil,
and looks paler the more thinly it is painted over a light ground.
Semi-transparent colours are those that come between the two
classes, as terra vert, emerald green, &c.

All are used for tinting, but the addition of a very large
proportion of transparent stainers lessens the covering power of
the paint. In graining, marbling, &c, where the ground colour
is required to show through the top coat to a more or less
degree, transparent colours are indispensable.

Matching Colour in Paint. — In making and matching tints
the colour to be matched should always be examined separately
from its surroundings, which alter its appearance. This may be
done by placing a piece of white paper having a hole in it, over
the colour to be matched, and examining the colour through the
hole.

To obtain pure blue, both yellow and red must be absent;
the addition of one of them will still produce a pui-e colour,
though not a pure blue; while the addition of a third lowers the
scale of hue and causes it to approach neutrality. To obtain
pure red, yellow and blue must be absent, and to obtain pure
yellow, blue and red must be absent. All greys, drabs, and
browns contain the three elements of yellow, red, and blue in
varying degrees of combination, and black, which is the border
line between deepest grey and deepest brown, is the result of a
neutralising combination of these three colour's in such propor-
tion that each kills the effect of each. Ideally these proportions
are yellow 3, red 5, blue 8. Grey may be said to be black with
some yellow taken from it. Drab is black with some red taken
from it. Brown is black with some blue taken from it. The
addition of a white or black pigment to coloured pigments
always adds to their bluishness. Tn the case of reds they look

COLOUR MIXING. 127

more purple, in the case of yellows they appear greener, and
in the case of blues they appear bluer.

In matching a colour first take its base, then its most pro-
minent component, and gradually add its toning or lowering
elements as the case may be. For instance, in matching a fawn
colour, take white and thin it to a workable consistency ; then
add ochre or Sienna, and afterwards the burnt Sienna or red
ochre • last of all secure the precise match by a touch of blue or
red as may be necessary.

Important Rules for Matching Colours. — Remember that
a colour may always be made to appear brighter than it is, by
the presence of its opposite or complementary colour. If
matching a poppy, leaf and flower, the amateur colourist will
probably make the red too pure a scarlet, and the green too
crude a green, and will find a touch of brown to the red, and of
grey to the green, necessary when he comes to compare them
with nature.

The effect of adding a given quantity of a colour to a tint of
its own family, and to a tint of another class, varies considerably.
This must be constantly kept in mind when matching. Thus it
will be found that the slightest possible touch of red, added to a
blue or green tint, will totally change it ; whilst the same
quantity of the same red, added to pink or warm yellow, would
hardly effect a noticeable change at all.

There are a number of facts relating to colour which it is
important for the colour mixer to be acquainted with, embodied
in the chapter upon " Colour in decoration," but the points
noted here are absolutely essential to the painter, and are based
upOn the practical results that accrue in the mixing of ordinary
painters' pigments.

Mixed Tints and Colours. — To assist in the identification of
certain colours and shades, and in the recognition of their
components, the following list of mixed tints are given as
suggestions. They are equally applicable to oil or distemper,
subject to conformity with the lists of colours specified for use
in oil only, and water only, respectively.

Colours which may not be used in oil : —

Lime blue.
Damp lake.
Sepia.

Bremen blue.
Lime greens.

Dutch pink.
Gamboge.
Zinc chromes.
Blue verditer.
Rose pink.

Vandyke brown, crimson lake, Dutch pink, and indigo may be
used as glazes. They are bad driers and fugitive.

128 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Colours which may not be used in distemper: —

White lead. Antwerp blue.

Red lead. Bitumen.

Lead chromes. Prussian brown.

Prussian blue. Brown lake.

Vegetable greens. Vegetable lakes.

Common vermilionette. Naples yellow.

Prussian white and madder lakes, Antwerp blue and Prussian
brown, may be used in water colour as glazes, and afterwards
varnished or sized, but not with or upon lime.

In mixing different pigments together, some are absolutely
safe to exert no bad influence on others ; some are liable to
change others slightly if they are not pure and well made; and
yet others are destructive of each other.

The following lists, though incomplete and unscientific in
compilation, will be found to be just what are required by the
colour mixer to enable him to select those pigments which will
lead to the best results, and to use the safest combinations. In
the advanced state of chemical science, a variety of causes, such
as uncertainty of origin, varied processes of manufacture, and
special diluents, may upset the result as tabulated ; so that they
must not be regarded as absolute.

Colours that usually combine well with each other : —

Zinc white.
Venetian red.
Cobalt.
Indian red.
Raw Sienna.
Yellow ochre.
Paw Umber.
All blacks.
Malachite green.

Burnt Umber.

Burnt Sienna.

Chrome green (oxide).

White lead.

Whiting.

Cadmium.

Common ultramarine.

Vermilion.

French blue

Of these the cadmiums, vermilion, and common ultramarine
sometimes act prejudicially on the lead and whiting, and inva-
riably hasten the discolouration of white lead owing to the
action of the sulphur. Colours containing sulphur should be
lightened by the addition of zinc white. The greens, reds, and
blues derived from aniline sources are safe with any of the
above colours.

Colours that are destructive of each other and ought on no
account to be mixed together : —

Cadmium yellows and emerald green.
White lead and vegetable lakes.
Aureolin and indigo.
Emerald green and ultramarine

COLOUR MIXING.

129

List of Composite Tints.

Principal Ingredients given first, remainder in rotation.

Pompeian red, .
Pompeian yellow,

black,
blue,

Flesh tints,

Fawn colour,

Buff,

Wallflower brown,

Poppy red,

Red for walls, termed terra
cottas, .

Bright red,

Salmon for walls,

Brighter, .

Colour for walls between

salmon and fawn, .
Chestnut brown,
Deep chestnut brown,
Vandyke red,
Bay brown,
Brick reds,

Chocolate,

ji ■

i > •
Leather brown,
Light „

>j >>

Woody brown,

>>
Brown,

Pink, brightest,

Vermilion and Italian ochre ; or, vermilion,

chrome, and a touch of ultramarine.
Italian ochre and white, toned with a touch

of ultramarine and vermilion.
Ochre, vermilion, and ultramarine.
White, ultramarine, a touch of vermilion
and Italian ochre.
,, and burnt Sienna.
,, vermilion, and ochre.
,, ochre, and lake.
Naples yellow, and a little vermilion and lake.
White, burnt Sienna and ochre.

,, raw Sienna, raw Umber, Venetian

red.
,. ochre, Venetian red, a little Umber.
Chrome yellow and brown lake.
Orange, vermilion, carmine, and brown

lake.
Alizarine scarlet and Indian yellow.
Venetian red and ochre, or

,, ,, chrome and white, or
,, ,, and chrome.
,, ,, and orange vermilion.
White, Venetian red, and chrome.
,, vermilion and ochre.

,, ochre, chrome, and lake.

Burnt Sienna, ochre, and chrome.

,, ,, and Vandyke brown.

Vermilion and Vandyke brown and lake.
Brown madder, ,, ,, and vermilion.

Burnt ochre.
Red ochre.

Yellow ochre and Indian red.
Venetian red.

Burnt Sienna, vermilion, ultramarine, and
lake.
,, ,, Indian red, and black.

Venetian red and black.
Ochre and brown lake, white.

,, burnt Umber, burnt Sienna,and white.
Orange chrome, raw Umber, and white.
Venetian red and Prussian blue, and burnt

Sienna.
Red lead and Indian red, Vandyke brown.
Burnt Umber and orange chrome.
Vermilion and Vandyke.
Burnt Sienna and black, and vermilion.
Indian red and mid chrome.
Rose madder and white.

130

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Pink for walls,

A good cold black,

,, warm ,,
Pearl grey,
Cool grey,

Fine pearly grey for wall
Useful
Cold grey,
Warm , ,
Warmer,,

Bright French grey, .
Useful distemper grey
Sky blue, .

Sandstone (red),

(yei.)-

Pea green,
Willow green, .
Slate green,
Seaweed green,

Sea green,
Grass green,
Spring green, .
Ivy green,

Distemper green,

Duck's egg green,
Apple green,
Tea green,

Grey green,
Bronze green, .
Olive greens,

Tints of olive green,
Sap green,

Sage green,
Blue sage,.

Primrose green,

,, yellow,
Daffodil, „

Cream tints,
Drab,

Mansfield stone,
Straw colour, .
Hyacinthine blue,

White, vermilion.
,, Venetian red.
,, orange chrome and lake.
Ochre, emerald green, and ivory black.
Ivory black, Indian red, Venetian red.
White, Prussian blue, and lake.
White, Prussian blue, ami lamp black
,, emerald green and vermilion.

cobalt and Venetian red.
,, and blue black.
,, Venetian red, Vandyke brown.
,, lake and Vandyke brown.
,, ,, ultramarine.

,, lime blue, damp lake, blue black.
,, Bremen blue in water.
,, cobalt in oil.
,, red ochre and brown ochre.
,, yellow ochre.
,, pale Brunswick green.
Ochre and indigo,
White, burnt .Sienna and black.

,, chrome, yellow lake and indigo.
,, mid chrome and Vandyke brown.
,, cobalt and raw Sienna.
,, ochre and cobalt.
,, mid chrome and black.
Yellow ochre, burnt Sienna, ultramarine.
Chrome, burnt Sienna, and Prussian blue.
Whiting, Dutch pink, and lime blue.

,, raw Sienna, and blue black.
White, Prussian blue, lemon chrome.
,, ,, cadm um yellow.

,, ,, burnt Sienna and

chrome.
,, terra vert.
Deep chrome and black.
Ochre and French ultramarine.
Mid chrome and black.

,, ,, and burnt Sienna.

Add white and pale chrome.
White, raw Sienna, Prussian blue, burnt
Sienna.
,, black, and burnt Oxford ochre.
,, ,, Prussian blue, and burnt

Oxford ochre.
,, lemon yellow, Prussian blue.
,, pale chrome.
,, pale cadmium or chrome, Venetian

red.
,, mid chrome, a little vermilion.
,, Umber and ochre and Indian red.
,, Umber and Venetian red.
,, pale chrome and raw Umber.
,, ultramarine and rose madder.

COLOUR MIXING.

131

Peach,
Orange yellow,

Old gold, .

A better old gold,

Pale golden yellow, .

Turquoise blue.

Metallic blue, .

Peacock blue, .

Neutral blue, .•

Grey old blue, .

China blue,

Moonlight blue,

Sea blue, .

Deep sea blue (intense),

Slate,

Warm grey slate,

Lilac,

Lavender, .

Silver grey,

Steel grey,

Apricot, .... White, mid chrome an 1 vermilion, and a

touch of lake.

,, deep chrome and carmine.
Cadmium orange, or orange chrome and

burnt Sienna.
Ochre and burnt Sienna.
Mid chrome, vermilion, burnt Sienna, cobalt.
Italian cchre and white.
White, cobalt, and emerald green
Cobalt and emerald green.
Ultramarine, white and emerald green.
White, Prussian blue and burnt Umber.

,, ,, ,, ,, Sienna.

Indigo and cobalt, raw Sienna and white.
Cobalt and white, with Vandyke brown
Cobalt, lake, indigo, white and yellow ochre.
Indigo and cobalt, brown madder, and white.
White and blue black.

,, ,, ,, lake or Venetian red.

., Prussian blue, and lake.

,, vermilion, and Prussian blue.

,, black, and indigo.

,, cobalt, blue black, and Vandyke
brown.

The foregoing list might be indefinitely extended, but will be
found to comprise a large number of the most generally required
tints and shades. Most of the colours may. of course, be com-
pounded of other than the pigments named. The following
additional hints are given for general guidance : —

Bright reds and blacks make rusty browns, but rich browns
are obtained by mixing two low-toned reds or a red and brown.
Bright greens are made by using pure blues and yellows ; dull
greens, by yellows and purples or orange and blues. Bright
orange tones are made by mixing pure yellows and pure reds ;
dull orange by yellow greens, and red, or by brownish reds
and yellow.

Quantity of Paint to Cover given Area. — It is important
that the colour mixer should know the quantity of paint re-
quired to cover a given area. This will be found to vary
considerably with the texture of the surface to be covered
and its power of absorption, and equally so with different
classes of pigments and paints. The writer has proved by
practical experience that the following mixture covers 40
square yards of previously painted wall, there being practically
no absorption : —

7 lbs. white lead.
10 ozs. patent driers.

1 pint linseed oil.

\ pint turpentine.

132 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Also, that 64 square yards of the same wall were covered
by the following mixture : —

7 lbs. Charlton white (zinc and baiwta).
2 pints linseed oil.
\ pint turpentine.
5 lb. patent driers.
It will be noted that both paints when mixed and strained were
of the same consistency the difference in the bulk of the lighter
pigment accounting for the difference in the thinning required.

Further it was tested that the following mixture would cover
30 square yards of a new plaster wall not previously painted,
prepared, or papered : —

7 lbs. white lead.
12 ozs. drier.
\\ pints linseed oil.
A pint turpentine.

From these data the approximate quantity required for any
particular work can be ascertained.

This chapter would be incomplete without some allusion to
the composition of stopping.

Stopping. — -Putty is prepared by beating together the in-
gredients upon a stone slab or hard-wood table with a mallet
or pounder. In well-ordered shops a stout wood club is kept for
the purpose, square at the end and gradually rounded off into
a handle — i.e., like an Indian club, but square sided. If the
paint stone is a thick one it answers the purpose of making the
stopping on ; but if it is thin, a paving stone or stout block of
teak will do.

The dry ingredients are powdered, sifted, and mixed together
with the knife till they reach the consistency of clay ; then
more powdered material is added and gradually beaten into the
mass with the club till stiff enough for use ; the degree of stiff-
ness depends on the work for which it is required.

Ordinary putty is made of dry whiting and raw linseed oil.
Hard putty is made of equal parts of dry white lead and whiting
with a little litharge and linseed oil. Hard stopping is made
from paste white lead, dry white lead, and japanners' gold size,
or hard drying varnish. Extra hard stopping may be of dry
white lead and litharge in equal parts beaten up with japanners'
gold size and boiled oil. The addition of varnish or japanners'
gold size tends to make the stopping work coarsely and stickily,
and when no special hurry is necessary, ordinary hard putty is
preferable. Litharge or red lead will hasten the hardening of
putty.

COLOUR MIXING, 133

Complete List of Distemper Stainers. — The following list
is recommended as affording a complete palette for tinting dis-
temper for every class of -work, including paper staining and the
matching of wall paper tints : —

Blue black. Damp lakes.

Pulp azure blue. Carnation paste.

Bremen blue. Pulp azure lake.
Lime blue, various tints. ,, magenta lake.

Pulp raw Sienna. ,, maroon lake.

,, burnt Sienna. ,, mauve lake.

,, raw Umber. French ochre.

,, burnt Umber. Italian ochre.

,, Vandyke brown. Dutch pink.

,, African green. Rose pink.

,, lime greens. Venetian red.

,, Olympian green. Imperial yellow.

,, mineral greens. Pulp chromes.

Media for Decorative Painting in Distemper. — For highly
executed decorative work, such as flower and fruit painting in
distemper, a good medium is composed of stale eggs well beaten
up in vinegar and diluted with water, as it does not "jelly"
as size does, and remains open a long time.

A London recipe for distemper, to be made in the manner
previously described, has the following proportions which may
commend themselves to Metropolitan painters : —

4 " balls " whiting.
2 lbs. Young's patent size,
and sufficient water to cover the whiting.

A Scotch distemper is described as : —

12 lbs. whiting ; size, as given previously.
2 ozs. alum ; 2 ozs. soft soap.

It is very fast, for passages, schools, &c. Tinting colours for
lime wash should be restricted to ochres, Umbers, lime blue, lime
greens, charcoal or lamp black, and earthy reds (as Venetian).

External lime wash for farm buildings, &c, may be made as
follows : —

Lime, £ bushel, slaked with 1 gallon of milk and remainder of water,
1 lb. salt and 4 lb. sulphate of zinc to make it withstand the weather.

134

CHAPTER IX.

DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF
DISTEMPER.

qnj ~^~^i!<^i^^/ISTEMPER is paint made from pig-
9^S IrC^V^N. ^A^ ments diluted with water, to which
some adhesive substance is added to
fix it to the ground on which it is
used. The application of distemper
is usually limited to plaster, stucco,
i ( c^Qu^VP^sL? brick, or stone surfaces, as the atmo-
sphere in this country is too humid
and changeable to allow of its suc-
cessful use upon wood.

Advantages. — It is the cheapest
preparation used by the painter and decorator. It is principally
noteworthy for the purity of the tints obtainable and for the
rapidity with which it may be worked, both for large surfaces
and for decorative details. Though usually relegated to the
attics and offices of our houses and to the upper portions of our
public buildings, it is by no means incapable of considerable
artistic expression, and is a worthy companion and equal in
this respect to oil paint. It is the material used by scenic
artists and by continental decorators, in whose hands it has

DESCRIPTION AND, APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 135

been shown to be capable of the highest and best results. Most
of our wall papers, too, are manufactured in ihe same medium,
its soft and suant surface, its freedom from gloss, and its re-
flective power under strong light fitting it admirably for this
purpose. Many of the valuable " old masters " in the National
Gallery and other picture galleries, indeed all those painted
prior to the loth century, are painted in some kind of distemper
medium.

Objections. — The standard objections to distemper as a
decorative medium in this country are the facts that it is readily
attacked by damp and cannot be washed. These reasons should
not operate against its use in dry buildings nor in situations
whei'e it is out of reach, as on friezes, &c. Painted work, unless
in situations where it is much handled, seldom or never is
washed down in actual practice, although frequently selected
because it is washable.

Mixing Distemper. — To make a successful job in distemper,
the colour must be properly mixed so as to bind and not rub off,
spread easily, and dry quickly. For particulars, see the chapter
on " Colour Mixing."

Surfaces for Distemper. — The wall should present a good
surface for the reception of the material ; not too smooth, but
about as rough as a sheet of No. 2 glass paper is the best surface
for the medium. It is hardly possible to produce a successful
surface on the smooth lime-putty finish of ordinary English
plastering. There should be good sharp sand in the finishing
coat to give a grip or key for the distemper. A cement finish
gives a capital surface for distemper decoration.

The surface must be properly prepared, all the old distemper
completely washed off, and the absorption made equal over the
whole surface by a coat of preparation — viz., size or clairecolle.
Particular attention must be paid to greasy or smoky walls, or
to walls impregnated with stale paste and size. Such matter
should be removed by a good washing with water in which a
little weak disinfectant has been dissolved and to which a few
teaspoonsful of vinegar have been added.

There must be no grit or unmixed material in the distemper.
It must be put on rapidly and regularly and allowed to dry off
quickly with free ventilation. The deeper the tint used, the
more important it is that no time be lost in putting on or
drying off.

Colour Limit of Distemper. — There is no colour limit to
distemper, any and every tint and shade, from white to black can
be successfully used if the right ingredients are properly mixed

136 TAINTING AND OKCORATING.

and judiciously applied. Any paperhangings pattern-book amply
illustrates this fact.

Durability of Distemper. — If used in a suitable position,
distemper is quite as lasting a medium as paint ; indeed, in some
respects even more so. It does not discolour with age or with
impure gases in the air; it will clean and dust down if properly
tempered. The ruined houses of Herculaueum and Pompeii and
the tombs of Egypt show that distemper has stood the attacks of
time for centuries.

Cleaning Distemper Work. — To clean down distemper work,
use a lump of well-leavened dough, dust off the loose dust with
a dusting brush and rub lightly in one direction with the ball of
dough, kneading the dirt into the centre of the ball after each
rub. Dirt does not cling to distemper with the same tenacity
that it does to the receptive surface of oil paint ; the lustreless
surface has no grip for the floating particles of carbon and other
matter.

Whitening Ceilings and Walls. — Ceilings are frequently
distempered in pure white. A crude white made from whiting
only is unsatisfactory, it should always be toned either to a warm
greyish white, or to a warm creamy white sufficiently to give a
distinct tinge. Creamy or ivory tints are most desirable —
greenish or bluish tints less so.

In distempering a ceiling or wall, always work from the light,
and lay off as little as possible, and in a variety of directions,
always inclining to the direction from which the light comes, so
that any edges left may be away from the spectator and facing
the light, they will then cast no shadow.

The preparation for distemper is that previously described
as clairecolle. A new ceiling or wall is first rubbed down with
glass paper and all cracks stopped. These may be stopped with
a mixture of whiting and plaster of Paris and water. The
quantity of each may be gauged to make a stopping of equal
porosity to the wall or ceiling. One-half of each will be a fairly
good general proportion. It is a bad plan to use size or dis-
temper in the stopping, as it causes it to contract when drying.
Keen's cement, or Parian cement, or a mixture of lime and sand
may be used ; the last takes longer to set than the two former.
The principal concern is to use a stopping which, when hard,
will present a surface of the same or a similar character to the
wall itself, especially in absorbent power.

In preparing the crack or hole for stopping, it must be under-
cut at the sides to form a dovetail or key, and cracks should be
cut out quite half an inch in width to enable the operator to face

vm=

•»1\ m, rsBy

Plate 12. -SIMPLE STENCILS ILLUSTRATING IMPORTANCE OF CONTRAST.

7 o fare p. 136.]

DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 137

the surface up level, as a wall is usually out of plane on the two
sides of the crack, and if an attempt is made to stop the crack
without cutting it out at all the surface of the stopping will
probably present a bevelled edge instead of being in plane with
the wall. The broader the crack is cut out the less this will be
noticeable. The crack or hole must be soaked or the stopping
will not adhere to the dry porous surroundings, which will
draw the moisture from the stopping before it has time to set.
All loose plaster near the hole must be removed, or the new
plaster will pull it away as it sets. The stopping being dry and
the surface having been glass papered, the work is ready for
clairecolleing.

Treatment of Stains in Ceilings. — Should there be any damp
places or stains, they had better be treated to a coat of paint.
Flatting, which has plenty of driers in it, should be used, and it
should be of the same tint as the surrounding plaster.

Clairecolleing. — The whole must then be clairecolled ; ordinary
weak jelly size in which a lump of alum as big as a walnut
has been dissolved in 2 gallons of the size is a usual pre-
paration. This may in ordinary cases have a pint of the finishing
distemper added to it. In most cases the alum may safely be left
out, but for a hot or porous ceiling its use is a safeguard against
the distemper working heavily in the finishing coat. Some
painters add a little soap and others add oil, but these substances
are foreign to the character of genuine distemper and frequently
exert a damaging effect upon the tinting colours used afterwards.
In addition they add to the fixative quality of the distemper in
an annoying degree, and prevent clean washing off on subse-
quent occasions.

However good the surface of the plaster is, it is better to
prepare it by a coating of clairecolle, as this ensures that the
work will be equally non-absorbent, over its whole surface. The
surface of even the best of newly plastered work is always,
owing to the trowelling, harder in some portions than in others,
as the larger particles of lime and sand gather together and the
finer parts absorb more water than the coarser.

If the space to be covered is a large one it is a good plan to
omit the colouring matter and also whiting, to size the ceiling
with alum size, and to distemper while it is still damp. This
keeps the distemper free and wet on the edges for a much longer
time, and allows the necessary pauses for scaffold shifting,
without danger of the break joints showing up. In such a case
a little less size and more body is used in the distemper to counter-
balance that picked up, in the working, from the clairecolle or size.

138 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

The use of alum is especially recommended where the dis-
temper has been mixed with chilled size, but the preferable
practice is to mix distemper with warm size, and to leave the
alum out whenever it is unnecessary, as it precipitates chondrin
(one of the essential elements and active components in the size)
and reduces it to a liquid consistency which often results in bare
and shady finish.

A very bad wall or ceiling may be hung with lining paper
prior to distempering. No preparation or clairecolle will be
necessary upon a white lining paper, unless it be upon a very
large surface, and then a very weak size may be coated on, to be
followed at once witli the distemper. Lining paper should not
be painted prior to distempering; this stops its power of absorp-
tion, and retards the rapid and even drying out of the distemper.

In laying on size or clairecolle it should be done evenly, sparely
and without unnecessary motion. The same ground must not
be covered twice, and it should be done slowly and deliberately
to avoid the size frothing and clogging.

Laying on Distemper. — -When putting on the finishing dis-
temper it should be laid on boldly, freely, and equally, with a
light free sweep of the brush. It does not require crossing or
spreading. Each brushful of colour should be expended on its
own little space, and left as finished, before taking another dip.
Never attempt to use a second coat over ordinary distemper.
If unsatisfactory, wash off and recommence. See that the pre-
paration of the work has been properly attended to, as on this
more than on anything else depends the finished effect ; but
when actually laying the finishing coat, go right ahead, put the
distemper on and leave it to dry out with confidence in the
result. Use the portion of the brush nearest the tips of the
bristles, and do not bang the ceiling with the whole side of the
brush ; an amateur may be recognised at once by the slap,
dab, bang, bang motion that he invaluably adopts. Lay off
quite indiscriminately in all directions, as long as the distribution
is equal over the whole surface. The great difference between
painting and distempering is that, whereas paint needs spreading
on barely, distemper requires laying on fully and freely. Pay
particular attention to the stirring of the distemper, as some
tinting colours (as blues) will rise to the surface, and others (as
reds) will be heavier than the wilting base, and sink to the
bottom of the bucket or can. If the distemper has been made
with hot size, and stirred while chilling, the necessity for stirring
during use will be done away with, as the size will hold the
particles in suspension as soon as it becomes a gelatinous mass ;

DESCRIPTION* AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 139

but if not, then a stick must be kept at hand for stirring
occasionally. Do not "stir with the laying-on brush on account
of the danger of the brush gathering the particles from the
bottom of the bucket, and retaining them until the brush is
used, producing streaks of dark colour. The room in which the
work is being done must not be overheated, otherwise the jelly
of the distemper will assume a watery form, the work will dry
oft* too quickly to allow of care in the working, and the distemper
will be liable to trickle after it has been laid on a little freely.
Neither should it be" damp and cold, as this slackens the drying,
allows the distemper to skin in drying, and in minute ways
interferes with the production of a good clear luminous surface.
A temperature of 56° is a good one, and free circulation of air is
desirable.

Washing off Old Distemper, — In washing off old distemper,
use clear water ; and when the walls are unclean add a little
carbolic acid to it. First soak in well, giving time for the
distemper to become saturated with water before scrubbing.
Labour may be minimised if this point is attended to. Work
in large patches, and see that they overlap each other sufficiently
to avoid any imperfect washing between the patches. For
mouldings and cornices, extra soaking is required to reach the
deeper parts, and it should be done before rubbing at all, other-
wise the portions removed from the projections will gather in
the recesses and make them more difficult to wash out than
they were before. Pieces of deal or any soft wood may be cut,
to fit into the moulds, quirks, and enrichments; the use of the
knife for this purpose is sure to result in damage to the plaster.
When a ceiling flat is thickly coated and difficult to remove,
a zinc scraper will be found more workable than a steel one, as
it does not stick into and damage the plastei\

Modelling tools are sometimes useful to clear out the inter-
stices of modelled work ; and for plastering up any cracks in
the enrichments those of steel are handy.

A ceiling or wall that presents uneven and great suction
all over (a matter which should be noticed when washing off),
must be either lined with paper or given a coat of paint;
flatting. A coat of Duresco is also effective, and is by some
painters preferred to paint. It must, however, be borne in
mind that the suitability of a surface for treatment in distemper
is destroyed by painting, as all respiration, as it may be aptly
termed, is stopped, and an impervious surface, suitable only
for an impervious pigment will have been formed. The
painting is only recommended as a method of doctoring an

HO PAINTING AND DELOKAT1N6.

otherwise incurable complaint, and must not be resorted to un
necessarily.

Bad old stains must be coated with patent knotting before
painting. If a stain is not dry, it may be dried, or dampness
driven off the surface, by a burning-off lamp and the place coated
with knotting while dry and hot. A coating of sulphate of
zinc in water will have the same effect as the knotting, and may
be substituted for it.

The cause of stains and dampness must always be ascertained
and removed. A frequent cause is the use of cavity walls
without sufficient free ventilation. These walls are valuable
aids to dryness if associated with a thoroughly efficient system
of air ventilators. If unventilated, the currents of damp air
find outlet at the warmest spot — viz., into the rooms. Stains
caused by the percolation of smoke through inferior brickwork
are common, and may be cured by surface treatment of knotting
and paint.

Whenever danger of infection or vermin is present, carbolic
acid should be freely used, both in the washing water and in the
clairecolle ; cracks and crevices may be syringed with the acid
in half-full strength. For beetle holes and other vermin haunts
the stopping may be mixed with carbolic acid and water, and a
little powdered glass.

Stippling Distemper. — In finishing high-class distemper
work, a pleasing texture may be got by stippling, but it is by
no means necessary; in order to produce an even surface, more-
over, a stippled distemper surface is inconvenient to work upon
with the pencil or fitch.

American Distemper. — In America, lime preparations under
the name of " kalsomine " are largely used for distempering,
as also are patent preparations of gypsum (plaster of Paris) and
other similar materials, under the names of " water fresco,"
"anti-calcomine," " alabastine," &c. These are not regarded
as meeting all the climatic conditions of this country equally
with ordinary distemper, though they have individual advan-
tages which often prove useful to those who are conversant with
their use. The student is recommended to acquaint himsell
practically with all new materials of the kind and their cap-
abilities, but there is no need for their fuller description here.

Painting Plaster Prior to Distempering. — In enriched
cornices it is sometimes urged that the work becomes furred up
with continued application of distemper, and that this is not so
likely to occur if the work is painted prior to distempering. The
real cause of furring is to be attributed to careless and insufficient

PL A TE III.

DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OP DISTEMPER. 141

washing off, and the failure to clear out the interstices of the
work and free them from the former distemper prior to re-coat-
ing. Painting for such a reason is not justifiable, and though it
has the general sanction of metropolitan practice, it is so contrary
to the true principles of tempera work that it can only be
regarded as vandalism.

Damp Walls. — One of the many troubles that lie in wait for
distemper is damp walls. A number of compositions have been
patented and placed on the market with the object of curing this
evil, but in all cases they are the veriest makeshifts. It cannot
be too plainly set down that there is no cure for a damp wall.
The source of dampness must be entirely removed. If damp
comes through a wall exposed to the weather the wall
should be tiled, slated, or cemented, or coated with a water-
proof solution on the outside. A hot mixture of equal
parts of linseed oil, resin and tallow, or bees-wax, will form
a good one. Cemented walls, if very sandy, will sometimes
let water through. They may be cured by coating them with a
strong soap jelly made by dissolving 3 lbs. of yellow soap in
enough boiling water to make a jelly. It must be well rubbed
into the wall on a dry day, and when dry, a coating of strong
alum size (say 1 lb. of alum, 2 lbs. of glue, and 2 quarts of
water) must be laid on freely over the soap preparation. This
mixture has much the same effect as two coats of liquid petrify-
ing solution or Duresco, but we prefer the method given.

Duresco and Distemper. — There are cases (as in cellars)
where, though not badly damp, the walls are in contact with the
earth outside. If possible, dry area spaces should be arranged, but
in such cases the best distemper to use is a washable one, such as
Duresco. This material is also by far the best for use upon new
plaster. It is a proprietary article, and consists of barytes, oil,
glue, and other ingredients. Tested by the writer it has been
found to withstand wet lime putty finish, plaster, the damp from
vapour baths and Turkish baths, heat and steam. In one
instance a fungus growth accumulated upon its surface for
months, the material remaining unimpaired upon its removal by
washing. Like most patent distempers, it is not sufficiently well
understood to allow of its being put into the hands of the work-
ing painter without full and definite instructions for use, and in
all cases of importance it is desirable that the advice of the
manufacturer as to thinning and applying should be carried out.
The liquid Duresco supplied for thinning may be used as a claire-
colle under ordinary circumstances where the body Duresco is
used in place of ordinary distemper ; it is also a good stone pre-

142 PAINTINO AND DECORATING.

servative. A coat of Duresco on new walls over ordinary size,
or claireeolle produces a good finish for temporary work.

Both distemper and Duresco may be used for renovating internal
discoloured stone work on porous stone. They should be applied
in the following manner : — A tint should be made to match the
colour of the stone, and then be diluted with weak size or with
water or liquid Duresco till it is semi-transparent. This must be
well brushed into the stone leaving nothing upon the surface;
when dry, the colour of the stone will appear as new, while the
texture will not be interfered with either in local colour or in
grain. Duresco should not be used as a foundation or substitute
for the under coats of paint. Its intervention between the paint
and its ground is disadvantageous except in certain special cir-
cumstances ; for instance, upon metallic or smoky surfaces, copper,
or zinc, as recommended in another chapter.

Colouring is sometimes necessary upon a brick wall. For this
purpose Duresco, tinted to match or improve the colour of the
bricks is far preferable to paint; it renders the bricks imper-
vious to water, and resists the action of soot and weather in city
streets. Bricklayers usually use ochre and Venetian red in milk,
beer, or alum water, as a medium for the dry colours, and
brushed on freely to tint their brickwork. Copperas, both white
and green, with or without ochre, is also used for improving the
colour of yellow bricks.

Distemper may be used upon wood-work. The wood-work
should be first sized strongly, or, better still, painted with a coat
of flatting. Great attention must be given to the relative
strength of size, and porosity of the wood, otherwise there is
danger of the work flaking off. It is in no case desirable to use
distemper upon deal or other soft porous wood, which is likely
to shrink and detach the distemper, unless it be upon narrow
mouldings, frames, &c. The size used for distempering upon
wood should be highly gelatinous and not glutinous.

French gelatine makes a go'od size for specially fine and highly
finished work. When using distemper upon white lining paper,
rather less size can be used, and the distemper can be laid on
more barely than upon a plastered wall.

Large decorative panels are often executed in distemper upon
canvas. This plan is followed in scene painting. For this pur-
pose a rather heavy canvas is selected as best. The canvas is
first sized, then coated with claireeolle, and finally distempered.
The size should be a glutinous or gummy one, as this makes a
less brittle distemper and is less liable to crack. A little treacle
or glycerine is added to further obviate cracking when the canvas

DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OP DISTEMPER. 143

is rolled and unrolled. Large foliage panels ten yards by five
yards were executed by the writer for the Brussels exhibition
buildings in this manner, the work being painted upon the dis-
temper ground in colour thinned with stale ale. Almost the
whole of the decorations at the great Paris Exhibition of 1889
were executed by a similar process and upon similar material.

The following are sometimes added to distemper to produce
the special result appended to each : — Turpentine, or paraffin oil,
to add to the binding power and arrest putrefaction ; sugar,
glycerine, and treacle, to slow the drying, and to render it less
liable to chip, and easier to work in decorative details ; oil of
cloves and oil of spike lavender or eau-de-Cologne, to improve the
odour and disinfect the material ; carbolic acid, to disinfect and
deodorise ] chloride of lime for the same purposes for rough woi*k;
spirits of wine, tc harden and congeal the size and render it less
easy to remove ; and alum or vinegar, to render the size more
liquid, and to kill alkaline action in the lime, walls, or whiting.
Several of these have a chemical action upon coloured pigments,
•notably carbolic acid upon vegetable pigments or organic com-
pounds, and chloride of lime upon almost all colours.

Greasy surfaces for distemper may best be treated with a
solution of soda and lime, and afterwards with alum or vinegar.
The work should be coated over with the mixture of lime, &c,
and allowed to remain two hours, then be washed off with clean
water and sized with alum size.

The brushes for distemper have already been described, Half-
worn brushes and tools — viz., stumps — should be used for the
washing off, and the newer ones for sizing and distempering. A
new brush may be worn in by using it for'washing down in clean
water twice or thrice. The best work can be done with the
brushes in which the bristles are confined in two or three knots,
or are bound in a solid knot by a copper band (see Fig. 15).

The limitations recommended for distemper have already been
touched on. It should not be used in places within reach of the
hands or clothes ; washable distempers can be used for the lower
levels. Hot water pipes, coils, boiler cases, and similar metal
surfaces may be coated with Duresco. Distemper must not be
used out of doors, but Duresco is a good material for outside
work, or for all damp places where distemper is not suitable.

Washable Distempers. — Every year sees additions to the
list of washable distempers, or, more properly called, water paints,
for many of them are not really washable in the ordinarily
understood sense of the term.

Many of these new paints are notable, but, as far as experi-

144 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

ments can be carried out by one person, tbe original Duresco has
never been surpassed. The practical painter will, however, find
in most of them one particular quality which fits it especially
for some particular class of work. The range of colours is
much improved, but the best and least chalky-looking range is,
perhaps, also that of Duresco. Many of the makers are content
to produce pale whitish-looking tints without depth or mellow-
ness. Olsina is a notable exception to this fault, and, as a good
ready-made distemper with some washable pretensions, it is one
of the most easily managed and one of the best to " cover."
Among others now well known are "Mayresco," "Wapicti,"
"Zingessol," "Aquatinta," "Oalsonine," "Wal-pa-mur," "Petrox,"
"Rapidal," " Wallene," " Phasantate," " Alabastine," Muraline,
Vernolene, Hall's distemper, and Sanitol. The latter keeps
especially well.

Sichel Glue. — A substitute for animal glue is the now well-
known sichel glue, which does not corrode, ferment, or decompose,
and which is soluble in cold water. It does not gelatinise.
A limited test places it high in the list of recent advantageous
additions to the paint shop stock. It can be used as a paste.

145

CHAPTER X.

term plain fainting, includes the
preparation and application of oil
paints in a simple and direct manner
to various kinds of surfaces, and the
preparation of the surfaces themselves
to receive the paint. "Paint" is
understood to consist of pigments
diluted by various oils, and the term is used in the trade to
distinguish it from pigments mixed with water vehicles. The
oils used are known as " thinners."

Object. — Paint is applied either as a protective or decorative
agent, and sometimes as a combination of both. Its use is
confined to no particular class of surface or material. Several
applications of paint, known technically as " coats," are necessary
to ensure a solid appearance. The earlier coats are to render the
work non-absorbent ; the intermediate ones to pi'oduce a level
surface ; and the final ones to give the colour and effect. These
objects are frequently associated.

Qualifications of Paint. — The paint used for any specific
purpose must have sufficient fluidity for its particular purpose

TAINTING AND DECORATING.

It must become hard upon the ground on which it is used, and
must be sufficiently viscid to adhere to that ground.

Painting on New Piaster. —Surfaces to be painted must be
clean and dry, free from grit, grease, and moisture. Newly
plastered surfaces, indoor work, will require no special prepara-
tion prior to painting. They will require four or five coats.
Assuming that they are properly dry, they must first be well
rubbed down with glass paper, No. 2i. The paper should be
rolled round a cork block, and its position shifted from time to
time, so as to present new and unworn surfaces to the wall.

All cracks and holes of any size must be stopped with Parian,
or Keen's cement. Plaster of Paris will do if some days can be
allowed to elapse before it is painted, but the cements named
can be safely painted upon a few hours after being used. A
trowel putty knife (Fig. 52) is useful for plaster stopping, and
tine cracks are best filled by using the broad chisel knife (Fig.
52) and drawing the cement over them, thoroughly levelling up
all slight depressions. A better surface is required for painting
than for distempering, as the gloss of the paint will show up all
imperfections.

Fig. 52. — Trowel stopping and broad chisel knives.

When the stopping is dry, it must be lightly rubbed down,
and the whole surface well dusted ; it will then be ready for
the first coat of paint. For painting, use a £ brush, and a large
and small sash tool for cutting round doors and windows and
other fittings.

For the composition of the various coats of paint, reference
must be made to the chapter on Colour mixing.

First Coat on New Plaster.— The first coat should be rather
thin and penetrative, the object being to hold to, and harden
the surface, and provide a good key for the succeeding coat.
When the first coat is dry, the wall should not present an all-

PLAIN PAINTING. 147

over gloss ; if it does so, the colour has been used too thickly,
and has not properly penetrated the surface ; or it has dried too
quickly, and has not had sufficient time to soak into the wall.
On the other hand, it must not present an entirely dead surface
as if all the paint had soaked in, or there will be no sufficient
hold for the next coat of paint. A day should now elapse.

Second Coat. — The second coat should be less thin and leather
more oily than the first. It should be tinted slightly towards
the finishing colour, but be kept much lighter than that will be.
Any indentations, dents, or imperfections which the gloss of
the colour will now have revealed must be carefully faced up
with the putty knife (Fig. 53), and either ordinary or white
lead stopping, made as previously described. The second coat
should be given forty-eight hours to harden before commencing

Fig. 53. — Stopping or putty knife.

to putty up. Allow the stopping a day to harden; if putty is
used it will require two or three days. Then the whole must
be again glass-papered down with No. li paper, and well dusted.
If five coats are to be put on, the third coat may be similar to
the second.

Third Coat. — The third (or fourth) coat — i.e., the last but
one — will be dependent upon the class of finish. The most usual
finish for such walls is " flatting."

Flatting. — Flatting is colour that dries with a lustreless sur-
face, the gloss being only about the same as that upon a new-
laid egg shell. Flatting (having little binding or adhesive
power, owing to the preponderance of turpentine over oil in
its composition) requires to be laid on a tacky or adhesive
under coat, or it will not wash. This is secured by the use
of much oil in the coat before flatting, and the flatting is put
on immediately the under coat is dry enough to work over. For
the ingredients of both oil colour and flatting see Colour mixing.

In flatting, if the walls are likely to have much wear and tear,
and are passably smooth, a tablespoonful of copal varnish may be
added to the flatting to harden it ; but if the walls are wavy and
unsightly, as is often the case with old walls, a deader flat will
be advantageous, in which case no oil at all is added to the paste
white lead, but turpentine only.

148

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Between each coat, except the two last, it is desirable to gently
rub down with No. 1 glass paper, used without a block or rubber.
Very little pi'essure must be exercised, as the only object is to
remove nibs, dust, or any light particles that may have adhered
during the drying of the previous coat.

Stippler

Flatting must always be done quickly and methodically and
without confusion, and always upon a glossy under coat as
described. It must be done before the under coat is too hard,
or this will have no key or hold for the flatting. The flatting

PLAIN PAINTING. 149

colour must be very thoroughly mixed and strained, and re-
strained, and it is preferable to allow it to* stand for a few hours
after mixing, so that the commingling of the ingredients may be
the more complete. For flatting large surfaces, two, three, or
four men will be necessary, according to the height of the surface
to be flatted. To ensure the joints being invisible, great care
must be taken that the edges of the work do not commence to
set. Each flank of wall must be continued without interruption
from start to finish. The work should be commenced at the
right-hand top corner, each man taking just as deep a section as
he can well attend to. The top man should start first and keep
half-a-yard in advance of the next man below him, who will take
up and complete the work of the man above, immediately he
leaves it for the next half yard. This method of working avoids
collision and splashes or damage to the work below. In work-
ing, every part must be well and evenly covered by the paint
brush, and then regularly and evenly dabbed with the stippler.
The stippler must not be trusted to, to spread the paint.
The stippler has already been described in the chapter on
brushes, and is here illustrated in various shapes (Fig. 54).
Those provided with reversible handles are preferable. The
bridge-handled stippler is preferred by many for ceiling work.
The stippler must be used with only just sufficient force to get
to the colour and produce a regular and uniform granulation
of the surface, and must be used squarely so that the bristles
are always at right angles to the wall when the brush strikes it.

Painting on Stucco and Cement Walls. — For stucco and
rough finished walls, such as are found in the interior of churches
and public buildings ; and also for cement and sand finished
walls, the treatment will be the same as for plastered surfaces,
except that the first coats will require a larger proportion of oil,
and less turpentine. No rubbing down will, of course, be
required. Such walls should be repaired with Roman cement
or oil mastic, and not with Portland cement, unless they can
stand a few weeks prior to painting.

External plastered walls, as in pargetted or open timbered
work, should have a first coating of very thin colour, and boiled
oil should take the place of raw linseed, except in the case of
white paint, when it is better to use raw oil in the last two coats.
For the composition of colour for the several coats see Colour
mixing. In all other respects follow the treatment described for
interior plastered walls.

The treatment for out-door stucco walls will be the same as for
inteimal work, except that boiled oil should be used instead of

150 TAINTING AND DECORATING.

raw, as in last paragraph, and the proportion of oil to turpentine
must be increased as in the recipes given under Colour mixing.
A first coat of boiled oil and red lead is recommended upon the
exposed sides of a compo or stucco house. The first coat on
outside walls should never be attempted within three days after
heavy rain.

A reliable authority gives the following as his method of
coating outside house fronts, compo : —

1st coat, 3 lbs. white lead, 1 pt. raw linseed oil, driers.

2nd ,, 4 lbs. ,, \ pt. ,, ,, \ pt. turpentine, driers.

3rd ,, white lead, driers, two-thirds oil, one-third turps.

4th ,, ,, ,, one-third ,, two-thirds ,,

5th ,, ,, ,, three-fourths ,, one fourth ,,

It is arranged on the principle of alternating an elastic and a
hard coating, and not upon the principle that is generally
recommended by the writer ; but much may be advanced in its
favour for a stucco wall. Charles H. Blume's " stopping " for
plastered walls is a good first coating and forms an ideal bed for
a high-class enamel finish.

Painting on Stone. — Painting upon stone is not, or ought
not to be, necessary or desirable. It is not a preservative in
the true sense of the term. In cases where it is done, the same
treatment as for stucco will be satisfactory. If the stone is very
hard, the treatment for plastered walls should be followed.

Stone may be successfully imitated or matched by painting.
The work is finished in oil a few shades lighter than the colour
of the stone to be matched, and when partially dry, freely dusted
over with powdered stone dust of the same stone. The paint
must be oily and tacky, and the stone sand must be thrown
against it with some little force. The result is an extremely
good imitation, and also a durable surface. Compo is often
sanded after it has been painted a number of times, in order to
restore its rough texture. Sand thus used has a remarkably
good effect and stands the weather far better than a coat of
paint. The ground colour for sanding on should have a little
old varnish or fat oil in it and must be put on heavily.

Re-Painting Painted Walls. — Wall work that has been
previously painted will require two or three coats only when
re-painting. It should first be washed down and thoroughly
dried. This removes dust and dirt, smoke and grease, and
ensures a good surface for the paint to dry upon. A little com-
mon soda in the washing water gives a better key to the new
paint by slightly cutting the hard surface shell of the old paint,
but if used the greatest vigilance is necessary in well rinsing
with clear water every hole and corner of the work.

PLAltf FAINTING. 15l

If the work has decoration or lettering upon it, this must
be obliterated by rubbing well down with block pumice stone.
Soda is sometimes used in the rubbing-down water, but this
merely acts on the whole surface equally, and does not facilitate
the levelling process.

All paint has a tendency to become more transparent with
age, and strong colours and lines will gradually become visible
through the new painting by reason of this quality. When such
cannot be obliterated, it is well to give a coat over the whole
ground of some positive colour which is more assertive than the
old decoration, and allow it a couple of days to harden.

Stopping for previously painted walls, unless the walls are
greatly damaged, may be done with putty. The cracks should
hrst have a coat of thin paint, or oil and driers, to make the putty
adhere. Large patches should be made good with Parian cement
and dry white sand. The smaller the proportion of sand used
the better will the patch dry out. These cement patches will
require an extra coat of priming or two, to bring them to the
same condition of surface as the surrounding wall.

The first coat for the whole wall will be thinned with half oil
and half turpentine ; the wall will then require glass papering
with No. 1 paper. The next coat will require five-sixths oil, and
one-sixth of turpentine if the wall is to be finished flatted, and
will be ready for the flatting on the next day. If it is to be
finished in gloss, the second coat may be two-thirds oil and one-
third turps, and the final coat five- sixths of boiled oil and one-
sixth turps. This last coat will be all the better for the substi-
tution of half oil varnish for the boiled oil. See also Colour
mixing.

The foregoing remarks refer to internal walls. Outside walls
that have been previously painted should be treated in the fol-
lowing manner : — Washed and stopped, all repairs touched up
with priming twice. The whole painted one or two coats, as
necessary, of colour thinned with two-thirds boiled oil and one-
third turpentine, and finished as described for new walls and in
Colour mixing. Three coats in all will usually be necessary. It
is always economical to give one coat more than would be
absolutely necessary in order to " cover ; " otherwise the old
dirty coatings will soon commence to "grin" through the new
paint, and afford an instance of undesirable resurrection. It is
computed that if two coats can be made to " cover," a third adds
50 per cent, to the durability and life of the work.

It may here be remarked that beyond a certain point, succes-
sive coatings of oil paint are not of any advantage, but tend to

152 PAINTING AND DECOKATING.

lessen the protective value of painting. It is not easy to dog-
matise in this matter, and say at what point the change occurs ;
but as soon as the thickness of the new coats is sufficient to
resist the atmospheric influences upon the lower ones, and
prevent further hardening, no useful purpose is served by adding
to them, and if they be added to, the result is a mass of soft
leathery matter which is readily acted upon by changes of tem-
perature, always yields to pressure, and will have to be removed
entirely before the condition of the work can be improved.

In painting new walls it will sometimes be noticed after the
first coat is on that there are small bunion-like protuberances
visible. These are probably bits of quicklime or stone which
are still in active operation upon the surrounding plaster ; they
should be cut out and the holes filled with stopping or putty.
Let the hole be well painted first. In all stopping, care must be
taken to cut the holes as much dovetailed as possible, and to
wet for plaster or cement, and paint for putty stopping, so that
the stopping will keep in the hole or crack, and adhere to its
surroundings.

Painting on new plaster or damp walls should never be at-
tempted. New walls take six months to dry sufficiently for paint-
ing. This time may be shortened by keeping up good fires, or by
charcoal braziers stood about the house, and free ventilation.
Duresco or distemper should be used, if it is necessary to colour
the walls before they are dry ; but inasmuch as a house is not fit
for habitation till they are dry the necessity ought not to arise.

Painting New Wood-work. — Painting upon new wood-work
will require at least four coats ; a creditable surface cannot be
produced with a less number, and the wood-work must be well
finished by the joiner in order to allow of a good surface with
four coats only. It is presumed that the work has left the
joiner's hands in a proper condition for painting. If so, all the
plane marks will have been obliterated, all nails well punched
below the surface level, bits of glue removed, running or loose
knots replaced by sound wood, and the work finally glass-papered.
If these points have not been attended to, they must be, before
the painter can set to work.

The work will first require a thorough dusting with the brush,
and the removal of any specks or nibs. If the plasterer has
been at work after the wood-work has been fixed there will
probably be a few splashes, which should be removed with the
chisel knife, taking care not to cut the surface of the wood-work.

The knots must next be treated so as to stop any exudations
from them, and close the pores round about them. Patent

PLAIN PAINTING. 153

knotting, a mixture of naphtha and shellac, is the modern com-
position for the purpose. A mixture of red lead and glue size
was formerly used ; one of red lead and liquid Duresco is also
operative. Two thin coats of the knotting, one upon the knots
and the second carried a little distance beyond, are better than
one thicker coat. To make assurance doubly sure, in the case
of very bad knots, a layer of silver or aluminium leaf may be
laid upon the second coat of knotting while it is still tacky, or
upon a coat of japanners' gold size laid on over the second coat
of knotting. A. coat of red lead and size allowed to dry, and a
second coat with silver leaf laid upon it while wet, is an effective
method of dealing with knots. Gold leaf is still better than
silver leaf, because though thinner it is less " pinholey." In
the case of bad knots requiring this treatment, the knotting and
metal raise the knot a little above its surroundings ; it is, there-
fore, a good plan to scrape the knot down with a sharp steel plane
iron or scraper before treating it. Knots also project by reason
of the shrinkage of the softer wood around them ; the scraper
will be useful to correct this tendency.

The quirks of mouldings should have special attention before
painting. They are sometimes rough, and, if so, will gather a
quantity of paint and become unsightly ; a folded piece of glass
paper (middle 2) should be run through them.

The work will then require redusting and is ready for first
coat or "priming." The constituents of the various coats will
be found in Colour mixing. In priming, the colour should be laid
on freely and allowed sufficient time to penetrate. No time is
saved by hasty priming, as it is of the utmost importance that
the wood should take up all the colour it requires, and still
leave enough upon the surface to present a good ground for the
second coat. The colour should not be so thin as to wholly sink
into the wood. A fruitful source of blistering is the lack of
combination between this coat and the next, owing to the
priming having been of thin spirit colour and wholly absorbed
by the wood, leaving no key for the second colour.

Tbe practice of priming wood-work many days or weeks before
it is second coated is an extremely bad one, and conduces to
the same result. The object is to lay well hold of the wood, stop
further absorption, and give a tacky key for the next coat, and
unless this threefold object is attained the value of the workman-
ship is materially reduced. It is essential that the work be of
dry and well-seasoned wood if a good job is to be made of the
painting. The work must be weather dry when primed. Im-
mature or ill-seasoned wood will contract in the soft parts and

154 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

leave the grain standing above the general surface — a form of
relievo decoration to be strenuously avoided. Pithy or sappy
wood must be treated as knots ; if it occurs in a first-class job it
ought to be removed altogether. Particular care should be
taken when priming, that all holes and cracks have a full share
of paint so that the putty will adhere, and especially that the
nail heads are well painted or they will rust and push out the
putty.

Stopping.— If the work is to be finished in four coats it is well
to stop all the larger holes at this stage with ordinary putty for
commoner class work, and with white lead putty for best rooms
(see Colour mixing). The stopping or putty knife has already
been illustrated ; the shorter and stifler glazing knife (Fig. 55) is

Fig. 55. — Glazier's stiff putty knife.

useful for wood-work, for bevelling up or stopping over nail heads
where some pressure is required to get the putty home, and this
tool should find a place in the painter's kit. The chisel knife
(Fig. 56) is also a necessary aid in the preparatory work.

Fig. 56.— Chisel knife.

In stopping, the great points to be observed are, that the
ground upon which the stopping is put is tacky enough to hold
it, and that sufficient coats are put above it to conceal the stop-
ping effectually. This is especially important in cases of mere
shallow indentations. All stopping requires pressing solidly into
its place and there must be none left on the surrounding surface.
It is recommended that work be stopped two days after painting.
It should then stand a clear day before re-painting.

After stopping, slightly rub down, and then proceed to
" second coat." In rubbing down, caution is requisite in order
to avoid rubbing off the arrises or sharp edges. Carelessness in
this respect will make a new door look as unsightly as au old
one. If as much solicitude be shown to keep the moulds sharp
and clean as is usually shown to get the broad surfaces smooth,
the result will be an ample reward in improved appearance.

Plate 13. -A DESIGN THAT IS COMPLETE IN ITSELF AT ALL DISTANCES

„, , FROM THE EYE.

To face p. 154.]

PLAIN PAINTING; 155

The glass paper should be folded and bent to fit the mouldings,
and little corks, cut for covering with glass paper, may be used
for the broader members. Every edge "should possess its full
complement of coats in their integrity.

Any further slight stopping may now be done with hard putty
or hard stopper (see Colour mixing).

If a highly-finished surface is required, the filling up must be
done at this stage, in which event three coats after tilling up will
be necessary. If not, then the third and fourth coats may be
jn'oceeded with. All glass papering must be done prior to the
last coat but one, or the scratches will show through the finished
work. This does not infer that any nibs, &c, should be allowed to
remain upon the work, as such can be removed without a general
rubbing down, and without scratching the ground. These coats
will be dealt with later in detail.

Filling up. — Filling up is done in order to level a surface
which is too generally uneven to allow of effective stopping.
The process is employed upon plaster, wood, and other grounds.
The cheapest method is that of distemper filling up, usually
limited to walls, but sometimes used upon wood-work.

For distemper filling, take equal parts of the finest flour
plaster of Paris used by modellers, aud fine whiting ; mix well
together dry, add warm weak size, stirring well till it becomes
of a consistency that can just be applied with a brush. The
amount of size must be judged by testing, and by the class of
ground on which it is desired to work. TJse at once before it
begins to cool or thicken. A porous ground will need more
size than a non-porous one, and vice versd. A quarter of a pound
of concentrated size to a gallon of water makes a size of average
strength for this purpose. Give repeated coats, as necessary.
After it is dry, rub down with No. 1| glass paper stretched
over a wooden block, and prime with priming rather thin so as
to penetrate the whole thickness of the filling up, and saturate
it. Use the filling when warm, and before it thickens or sets.
Ordinary size and whitiDg is sometimes substituted for the above
filling. It should be made of the consistency of batter.

Patent wood filling is better for wood-work than distemper
filling. Harlan d's slate filling-up powder is a perfect one.
There are other good makes which the writer has not tested to
the same extent. Sold in powder they inquire mixing with
turpentine and thinning with Japan gold size. The proportion
of turpentine will be about half to half of Japanners', modified
to suit special cases. Lay on repeated coats smoothly with a
soft flat brush, allowing time for each coat to dry hard. Deep

156 PA1RT1NG AND DEC0KAT1NG.

depressions may be filled with some of the same, mixed stiff as
putty, and laid on with the broad knife. When hard, rub down
with block pumice stone and water till level, dry well, and
paint as before.

A handy filling is made frorn dry white lead or yellow ochre
and white lead, or from yellow ochre alone. They are all pre-
pared in the same way as the patent filling, and rubbed down
similarly. White lead has the objection of being dangerously
poisonous. When rubbing down it is not possible to keep the
hands free from danger of contamination; and if rubbed down
in a dry state with glass paper, the particles of lead find their
way into the eyes and nostrils. These objections do not apply
to white lead ground in oil and used as a paint. Yellow ochre
has too much water in its composition and too great an affinity
for water to make a reliable filler.

A quickly made, and for many purposes a handy filling (as
the materials are usually on the job, whatever class of job it may
be) can be made thus: — Mix together paste white lead in oil,
one part ; whiting in turps, one part ; whiting in Japanners'
gold size, one part. Apply as a stiff paste with the broad knife,
leaving as little upon the surface as possible. It hardens
quickly ; rub down as before. Small dents, &c, can be filled up
with ordinary distemper thickened to a putty with plaster, and
when set, rubbed down with block pumice stone lubricated with
boiled oil and turpentine. The pumice for rubbing down filling
should be of open grain, and sawn across the fibre so as to have
a sharp cut. The prepared pumice blocks sold by coachpainters'
colour manufacturers, and made in varying degrees of fineness,
are labour saving. Glass paper should be used over a block of
wood or cork, about ih by 3 inches, and 1| inches thick. A
piece of grit stone should be kept at hand for freeing the surface
of the pumice stone of accumulated paint. See A'ote on p. 172.

Re-painting Old. Wood-work. — In painting wood- work that
has been previously painted, the condition of the work is the
first consideration. If it is a paint-finished surface, smooth, and
free from cracks and blisters, all that is necessary is to wash
well, dry, and proceed with the same last two or three coats as
specified for new wood-work. The stopping should be done
before any re-painting, in the case of two-coat work ; and after
the first coat, in the case of three-coat work. Stop with hard
stopping. If the work is sound, but rough, first rub down with
hard block, or prepared block pumice stone, then wash and pro-
ceed as before. If sound, but varnished, the varnish coat, or at
least the major part of it, should be removed by a good rubbing

PLAIN PAINTING. 157

with pumice stone and water; the procedure will then be as
before. If cracked, but hard, the pumicing must be carried on
till the cracks are obliterated, unless they extend to the wood,
which is not usual. In some cases, where the cracks are separ-
ated by sound patches of hard paint, they may safely be filled
up with filling. Many painters treat cracked wood-work in the
following way : — A coat of oil colour is put on, and, while freshly
wet, the work is rubbed down with a gritty piece of pumice. A
certain portion of powder is ground off the pumice and forms a
filling, which is deposited by the rubbing into the cracks, form-
ing a solid filler. When sufliciently rubbed the work is lightly
laid off with the paint brush in the usual way, and allowed to
dry. If the work to be re-painted is soft and tacky, blistered, or
overloaded with repeated painting, it will be necessary to remove
the old paint, and commence again as if treating new wood-work,
except that the priming must be sharper colour.

It is essential that all bare places, repairs, &c, shall be brought
forward to the same condition of surface as the rest of the work,
prior to commencing to re-coat the whole. This may often be
done by coating with quick-drying colour, or thin patent knotting,
if time is of importance ; but a better method is to coat in the
usual manner for new work. In touching up patches of this
description, soften off the edges by "badgering" in towards the
patch with a dusting brush or dry tool, so as to prevent the
edges showing up when the work is painted all over.

The finishing coats upon new or old wood-work will be the
same in character. For inside work it is usual to finish either
in flatting, bastard flatting (i.e., an egg-shell gloss), enamel, or
varnish. The two latter methods of finish are dealt with under
the head of Varnishing. For cellars, kitchens, and offices, an
oil finish is sometimes adopted, but it is not to be recommended,
as it catches dirt and is less easily cleaned than varnish or
enamel.

For flatting, the thinnings used must be almost all turps, a
little varnish being added to harden it. The amount of varnish
may be slightly increased for doors and window bottoms. French
oil or good copal varnish should be used. For bastard flatting
three-fourths to two-thirds turpentine, and the remainder boiled
oil and varnish will be found satisfactory. For work that is to
be finished in varnish or enamel, a bastard flatting makes the
best ground. Some prefer an absolute flat for the purpose.

Burning off Old Paint. — The removal of old paint is achieved
either by burning off, or by dissolving with a paint solvent.
For outside work, where the smell of the burning paint is not

158 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

objected to, the lamp or charcoal brazier, or even a gas flame,
has every advantage. The lamps made especially for the pur-
pose are to be preferred, as more cleanly and economical, and
more easily controlled than fire or gas. Lamps are described
and illustrated in Chapter III. The lamp is held in the left
hand, and a broad chisel knife in the right; the flame is allowed
to play on the portion of the work immediately in advance
of the knife, and as soon as the paint is sufficiently soft, it will
be found that the knife readily slides along the bare wood,
removing the paint in its course. Once started, the lamp may be
kept moving as fast as the knife inclines to travel after it. When
possible to do so, keep the knife below the Ifsmp, hs the ascend-
ing heat gradually prepares the work above for the full blast of
the flame. A little practice enables the operator to establish
a sympathetic movement of both hands in unison, and the work
becomes quite mechanical. Always follow the grain of the
wood. Never attempt to burn more than you can remove with
the knife, but allow the knife to dictate the speed of the lamp,
as when once heated and cooled again the paint becomes harder
than before, like a stoved enamel. Do not allow the paint to
" fire," and do not scorch the exposed portions of bare wood
from which the paint has already been removed. Attack
the broad flat surfaces first, using a 4i-inch broad knife for the
stiles, so as to take them at one sweep. A narrow chisel knife
must be kept handy for flats, mouldings, edges, &c. Pieces of
thin, shaped, steel scrapers may be made to fit ogee or other
mouldings. A plumber's shave hook (Fig. 57), with inter-
changeable head, is useful for moulded and intricate work. The
tools must not be too sharp, or the wood may be damaged by
them.

Fig. 57.— Shave hook.

When the paint has all been removed, the work will require
rubbing down to remove odd particles of burnt colour which
have stuck, and to smooth the rough surface left by the knife.
Pumice stone and water may be used for this, as, owing to the
previous priming being still in the wood, it will be impeiwious
to moisture to a great extent. This fact alone is a strong
argument in favour of burning off as against solvents. Some

PLAIN PAINTING. 159

painters use turps and a little oil instead of water ; if the
work is done in damp, cold weather, it is a good plan. The
superfluous oil and turps is of course rubbed off with cotton
waste or rags. When water is used, the work must be allowed
to thoroughly dry before re-painting.

The remaining method of paint removing is by the use of a
strong alkaline or lime solvent. Ordinary soda and a little
lime is the commonest prepiration. Caustic soda, potash, black
ashes, and many patent removers are used. Harmer's Egyptian
clay is a good remover if the instructions for use are carefully
followed. After the use of any of these solvents the work
must be thoroughly soused with clear water, and the quirks and
cracks well washed out before the work has a chance of ab-
sorbing the solvent. The work must next be allowed to
thoroughly dry. Before painting, it is desirable to adopt the
precaution of coating the work with a solution of acetic acid or
vinegar to neutralise the effect of any soda residue. The work
must again be allowed to become bone dry. It may then be
knotted and primed, as if it were new work. This plan is
considered cheaper than burning off, and if proper care be taken
to carry out the instructions here given, it is satisfactory.
It is certainly less cleanly, and there are many points in it
where a little carelessness would have serious results in the
after painting. Doors should not be unhinged and laid down
for the purpose of stripping, as the alkali is liable to work
under the moulds aiid into the grooves and interstices if this is
done. If unhinged, they should be stood upright against a
wall.

Solvents are pi'eferable for indoor work in an occupied
domicile ; but where a house is given over to the paintei's, the
burning-off lamp is better. When working indoors, the floors
must be well protected, or the soda will blacken them. Water-
proof paper pasted down to the floor is the best protector.
The old pitch paper is the best for the purpose, as it withstands
the alkali as well as the water.

A reliable old-fashioned plan of treating "pickled" wood-
work was to give it a coat of strong alum size and red lead.

General Hints on Painting Wood- work. — In finishing wood-
work when a very fine surface is required the badger softener
may be lightly used, or, if in white lead, the hog-hair softener.
The work must first be carefully laid off in the usual manner and
then crossed and re-crossed lightly with the softener. In flatting,
the work may be finished with a flat fitch-hair varnish brush,
and the mouldings with a swan quill camel hair. Stippling

1G0 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

should not be resorted to for wood-work, as it leaves a granular
surface which is easily soiled. This remark does not apply to
transparent glazes, but to body colours. In painting mouldings,
care must be taken to first well rub the colour into the quirks.

A door, if to be painted in one colour, should be painted in the
following rotation : — Rebate, edges, top right-hand panel mould-
ings, panel, top left-hand panel mouldings, panel, bottom panels
in same order, top muntin, bottom muntin, top, middle, and
bottom rails, right-hand stile, left-hand stile ; frame, commencing
with back edges, and then with the meeting bead, and working
right round, bringing all on together from bottom right-hand, up
and across lintel, and down the left-hand frame. This order is
not arbitrary, and must be modified when varnishing and
enamelling. Doors and windows should never be closed until
the paint is quite dry.

Before painting, all impedimenta, as locks, handles, hooks,
finger-plates, sash-fasteners, and blind brackets should be taken
off. Necessary fastenings may be replaced with temporary old
ones. Some locks will require to be left on for safety ; these
must be kept clean. The time spent in taking off fittings is
regained in the free course given to the painter.

In painting a room, commence with the windows, cupboards
(if any), doors, mantel, and skirting. It is always possible that
the two latter will soil the colour and brushes. The door being
the most important as to finish, the brushes will be well worked
in and yet perfectly clean if this routine be followed.

In painting a sash window take the runners first, then the
meeting bar and outer sash, then inner sash, next frame, and,
finally, sill. Do not paint the sash cords, and be very sparing of
the paint upon the runners, top and bottom rails, and meeting
bars. Never paint that portion of the runners that is hidden
when the window is closed, except one bare coat at the finish.

In painting walls, commence each flank at the top right-hand
corner. Commence a cornice over the door in the nearest angle
and work to the left right round the room. Commence a ceiling
near the window and work away from the window.

General Notes on Painting. — The following general notes
must be acted upon in all classes of painting.

Spreading and Consistence of Paint. — The amount of
paint put upon the work should be as little as can be properly
spread unless when priming new work. The brushes must be
kept free from excess of colour and the paint well worked out
before attempting to lay off. Two thin coats are better than one
thick one for all classes of work, and for really first-class work

Platk 14. -outline patterns for staining upon wood.

To face p. 160.]

PLAIN PAINTING. 161

the less paint that is put on at each operation, consistently with
a proper covering of the ground, the better will the ultimate
result be. " Less paint and more painting " is the observation
the writer is compelled to make to quite 90 per cent, of painter
students. An overloaded coat of paint picks up and retains
dust and dirt, is easily damaged by smearing when wet, does not
dry from the bottom, but skins over, and cannot be laid off free
from ropiness. Paint should never be used too thin or oily.
There must always be enough pigment to keep the oils in their
place. Thin oil colour will expand unduly, and thin flatting
will crawl and crack. Thick podgy paint is equally dangerous ;
it must be thin enough to spread without ropiness and yet to
stay where it is put, and it should not flow after being spread,
unless it be of the varnish or enamel class. It must not be so
thin as to run back in the brush when working overhead.
Colour of correct consistence will spread easily and comfortably,
and if the painter cannot lay his colour off fairly well it is
probable that there is some fault with the colour itself.

The painting brushes should not be stood or dipped over the
bristles in the colour ; but a little colour should be taken up on
the point of the brush and patted against the side of the can to
distribute it among the bristles. Some pigments are heavy, and
are liable, however freely they are ground, to sink to the bottom of
the can. In such cases do not use the brush, but keep a stirring
stick or spatula in the can for occasionally stirring the mixture.

Large surfaces require, first, a sufficient quantity of paint dis-
tributed at short intervals, covering a panel or patch of wall say
half-a-yard by a yard. This must then be spread evenly, crossed
and re-crossed and, finally, laid off lightly. All wall surfaces are
laid off perpendicularly ; borders less than a foot wide hori-
zontally. Wood-work should be laid off in the direction of its
grain and construction. Ceilings should be laid off across or
athwart the light.

Sequence of Coats in Painting. — No absolute rule can be
laid down for the composition and sequence of coats of paint ;
but as a general working regulation, subject to particular omis-
sions, the under coats should dry more quickly and be harder
than those above them, and the difference between two adjoining
coats should not be very great. The priming and flatting coats
are invariable exceptions, and depend upon the kind of surface
treated and the finish required.

In outside work that has to be varnished, the varnishes will
follow the same rule, and the last coat of paint under the varnish
must be less elastic than the varnish is.

162 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Knotting on Work prior to Painting. — No intercoating

medium should be used winch will have the effect of separating
the paint from its groundwork. Some authorities recommend
the application of a coat of shellac varnish or knotting all over
wood-work prior to painting. This is clearly a pernicious
practice, as it transposes the paint into a mere detached shell,
instead of allowing it to form a surface to the wood itself by
absorption. The natural key, the porosity of the wood, is
destroyed, and a fruitful cause of blistering is set up. Knotting
coated with spirit colour and varnished has been given in
technical papers as a cure for paint blistering. It is not, how-
ever, painting at all, in the accepted sense of the term, and does
not fulfil the functions of oil paint.

Sizing on Painted Work. — Sizing on painted work is a
very universal and an equally unscientific practice. No better
method could be devised for obstructing the natural preservative
function if paint than the interposition of a coat of size between
the paint and its ground. It is a most unsanitary practice,
binding all the dirt and grease into a mass which the paint does
not penetrate. Its action upon the appearance of the work is
not prejudicial, if the size is weak ; but it effectually prevents
proper cohesion of the paint to its ground, or to the under coats
of paint. It is a foreign matter, and has no business there at all,
and no good excuse for its presence. Its use for the purpose
of stopping the suction of plaster prior to painting is distinctly
damaging to the wall. The practice is a dishonest one in most
cases, and the writer does not remember it ever being openly
specified in a straightforward manner. In short, it is generally
made to do duty as a coat of paint.

Technical Terms Descriptive of Paint. — The following are
technical terms used in speaking of paint : —

Paint is usually termed "colour."'

"Sharp" colour is paint in which turps predominates.

"Oily" colour is the converse.

" Piound " colour is paint that is stiff.

" Stiff" colour is thicker than round.

"Thin" colour is of liquid consistency.

"Fat" colour is greasy, oily, or stale colour.

"Quick" colour is colour that dries quickly.

" Slow " refers to slow-drying colours.

Washing Down Prior to Re-painting. — Outside work
should always be washed down prior to painting. It is curious

Plate 15..— NATURAL TREATMENT FOR CONVENTIONAL FLAT COLOURING
Tojacep. 162.] IN STAINS.

PLAIN PAINTING. 163

that while in London and in the south-coast seaside resorts, this
practice is pretty universal, in Manchester, Birmingham, and
Sheffield, where it is much more necessary, the practice is more
honoured in the breach than in the observance.

Knots. — Be especially alert not to miss knotting any of the
small knots in light tinted woi'k ; brown spots will come through
in a few weeks where the knots are missed.

Rubbing Down. — In rubbing down, if three pieces of pumice
are used alternately, and indiscriminately rubbed face to face
occasionally, they will produce an absolutely level surface.

Tar Spots. — -Upon outside work it sometimes happens that
tar spots are found. Tar is very destructive of paint, and they
should be thoroughly washed off with turpentine. Brunswick or
Berlin black are also dangerous if painted over, their composition
being bituminous.

Painting Round Edges. — In painting the wood-work of an
ordinary room, paint well round the edges so as to paint under
the edges of the wall paper, and well stop the angles formed by
the wall and the architrave mouldings, and other wood-work.
This keeps out dust and causes the edges of the paper to adhere
thoroughly.

Dusting. — The duster must be in constant use, as the con-
tinual moving and dusting creates fresh dust continually, and
all dust adds to the roughness of the work.

Fat Edges. — Fat edges must be always guarded against.
This common fault is that of allowing the paint to accumulate
on the edge at right angles to that which is being painted. The
brush should always be drawn out toward the edges of the work,
and not in from the edge, and any accidental accumulations
must be lightly removed with the point of the brush.

Hints on Platting.— If flatting does not turn out solid and
satisfactory, the work must be repainted in oil colour. It is
quite useless to attempt to refiat on a flatted surface, as the new
coat will dissolve the former one and cause it to work up,
making a worse finish than before. The rougher the wall the
stouter it is desirable to use the flatting colour ; and the rougher
the stipple, the less the wall will show up any imperfections.
Flatting will do a great deal to hide unevenness and bad places
in an old wall.

Paults in Painting ; Cracking. — Cracking in paint is caused
by the under coats of paint being more elastic than the upper one ;
consequently, when they are expanded by the sun's heat or other
causes, the upper coat is not accommodating and splits. The
same result is brought about whether the elasticity of" the under

164 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

coats is due to their ingredients, proportions, or to their not
having properly dried before the upper coats were put over them.
It must be borne in mind that oil expands in the process of
oxidising — viz., the oxygen is added to it, and nothing is given up
to make room for it. Turpentine, on the contrary, contracts
strongly, especially if barely spread. This can be well seen if a
small patch of the two oils are put upon a piece of glass : when
dry the linseed oil will show a wrinkled surface due to expansion,
and the oil of turpentine will have a concave surface, and appear
to be drawn in from the edges. If the superincumbent surfaces
are not nearly related to each other in drying power, or if the
varying power is not maintained in equal ratio, either cracking
or blistering is pretty sure to result.

Blistering. — Blistering is a more general fault than any other,
and may well be termed the bete noir of the painter.

It is brought about by various circumstances and conditions,
but the actual and direct cause is always the same. Moisture is
imprisoned, expanded by heat or other causes, and finds its neces-
sarily enlarged accommodation in a blister, which will occur
wherever there is least resistance, and where there is imperfect
cohesion between the paint and its ground. The moisture may
be water, gas, spirit, or oil. It may be inherent moisture in the
wood ; acquired moisture between the coats of paint ; resinous
moisture from knots ; unoxidised oil in the paint ; water in the
pigment, in the oil or in both, or a number of less usual faults.

Sometimes the work may be damp or frosty at the time of
painting, and this dampness is shut in by the paint. Sometimes
the wood itself contains constitutional water. Frequently there
exists free resin oil in the knots. In any case the result is
mechanically the same, the heat playing upon the surface ex-
pands the moisture; steam or gaseous vapour is formed and the
paint rises. A close examination of the blister will clearly show
between which coats the imperfect adhesion allowed the blister
to form.

Knots are frequently the locale of blisters, because inherent or
acquired moisture in the wood itself naturally finds its exit
through the open ends of the sap channels surrounding the knot.
For a similar reason, cross-grained wood, because of the number
of open sap vessels it contains upon its surface, will blister more
than straight-grained wood. The resin in the knot often gives
rise to blisters immediately above the knot itself, because the
resin oil keeps the colour soft or softens it and allows it to be
expanded. Curiously, too, the very precautions taken to protect
the paint from the action of the knot results in a smooth, keyless

PLAIN PAINTING. 165

surface from which the paint is easily lifted by the vapour.
This hard shellac in spirits has no affinity for the paint, and
refuses to attach itself to it or to hold it. If a blister be pricked
when hot and rising, the pin-hole will allow the steam to escape,
and it will not get any larger ; indeed, it may be pressed back
into its place. All woods which show a large percentage of
water in their analysis will blister readily.

To prevent blistering, care must be taken that due cohesion
and relative expansion is obtained between the various coats of
paint used, and that the particulars referred to as important in
outside painting are attended to. All knots, especially resinous
ones, must be effectually treated, even to the extent of having
very bad ones cut out and the places filled in with sound wood.
If work is very much exposed to strong sun it is advisable to
abstain from the use of a large proportion of oil, and to substitute
an oil varnish for a portion of the usual oil. The use of poorly-
bound turpentine colour is not a cure, such colour having no
prolective power. A blistering tendency may be much aggra-
vated by the use of "fat " colour. New oil colour should be used.
Stale fat colour will blister of its own defects. Blisters are fairly
sure to rise if the second coat is put on while the one before it
is not thoroughly dry. The use of an excessive quantity of
driers also leads to blistering. The desideratum required both
for preservative purposes and to prevent blistering is a perfectly
homogeneous steam-tight jacket of paint, firmly attached to its
ground in every part. If too elastic, it will blister on the
slightest provocation ; and if too inelastic, it will crack.

Paint will blister upon other paint, independently of the
material painted, if the necessary conditions for a blister — viz.,
imprisoned moisture and imperfect adhesion — are present, but
this is, of course, much less frequently the case upon other than
wood surfaces. So-called blisters upon cement and stone are
frequently caused by the action of nibs of unslaked lime ; those
upon iron are caused by rusting in spots.

Cissing. — Cissing is the term given to the contractile action
of water or paint upon a very oily surface of new paint. Varnish
frequently cisses upon oil paint. The tendency is overcome by
a brisk rubbing with a damp chamois leather, or a damp sponge
and a little fuller's earth ; about an ounce of the earth is dis-
solved in a half-bucket of water. Sometimes it may be cured by
rubbing with a dry rag and powdered whiting.

Striking or Plashing — Striking or flashing is the name given
to oily or shiny patches occurring in flatted work, and is caused
by a too free use of the colour in irregular patches, or by the under

16(5

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

coat of paint not being properly dry when the Hatting was done.
In some parts of the country the same term is employed when oil
colour goes oft' in dead patches, which are not the result of absorp-
tion. This is, however, akin to blooming in varnishes, and is the
result of frost or fog damp, and not defect for which the paint or
painting is responsible.

Ropiness — Ladders. — " Ropiness" is the term used to express
a too apparent use of the brush, a corded surface, caused either by
the colour being podgy or the brush coarse, and used with too
much force in the laying-off; the term is applied to paint when it is
thick and sticky, and will hold together like treacle. " Ladders"
are formed by carelessness in laying-oft'. The term expresses
the condition of things when, in laying-off for the last time,
there are missed places showing the transverse laying-off between
the final brush strokes. Both of these last defects are due to
the painters' carelessness or want of skill.

Grinning through in Painting. — " Grinning through" is caused by
the top coat being too thin and transparent, or too sparely applied, or by
its being either too light or too dark, or too far removed in hue to cover
its ground colour. It is only applicable to colour intended to be solid and
dense in finish. When done intentionally the same effect is termed
"scumbling" or "glazing." All light tints should have the ground colour
a few shades deeper and richer than the flatting, and very deep colours
should have the ground colour a few shades lighter than the flatting. The
reason for this is that the flatting alters in colour as it dries ; in painters'
language "it goes down to its ground," so that the differences noted are
really correctives to prevent grinning.

Bleeding Reds. — Some reds and a few greens have a tendency to
bleed, or come through superimposed coats of white. It is well to lie
assured that the reds purchased will not "bleed"; but in the case of
painting over previously-used reds or aniline greens which are unsafe,
several preparations can be obtained which will prevent trouble. Most of
these are of the nature of a knotting varnish.

Drying of Paint. — The drying of paint is an important factor
in its durability and in its successful application. Paint is not
dry immediately it appears to be so to the touch ; indeed, the
drying process in oil colours goes on as long as the life of the
work permits, getting less and less perceptible as the amount of
oxygen taken up by the oil is smaller and smaller, until at last
the paint becomes a brittle and useless shell of dead pigment.
It is important that a certain amount of this oxidisation should
take place in the under coats before they are covered and shut
in by the later coats, as during the first and rapid portion of this
"drying" as we term it, the process is accompanied with a con-
siderable amount of movement and shifting of the particles of
colour. If a piece of work be painted coat upon coat of oil
colour before each coat is sufficiently dry, this movement will

PLAIN PA1KTING. 167

c.tuse the top coat to break up and open out under a voluntary
effort of the undercoats to obtain the necessary oxygen for their
proper hardening. Four days is not too much to allow for the
proper drying of oil colour which will nominally "dry" in
twenty-four hours. The period may be shortened by additional
driers, but a good rule is to allow all paint to stand four times
as long as it takes to arrive at superficial dryness.

Paints dry better in a free and equably well ventilated room
than in a close warm one. In the use of driers the surface must be
taken into account. Copper and oak are particularly anti-drying.
Pine and cast-iron are particularly good. Quick-drying paint
is usually stronger in odour than slow-drying. The obnoxious
smell of paint may be changed into a comparatively pleasant one
by the addition of a few drops of oil of spike lavender, which
will also act as a drier. In like manner eau-de-Cologne may be
added to spirib varnishes and lacquers to meet the wishes of
fastidious people. The smell of paint may also be modified by
placing large pans of water in the room in which the painting
is being done.

Time for Outside Painting. — The time for outside painting
is largely a matter of opinion. The writer considers that the
summer time is undoubtedly the best time, because of the absence
of dampness in the atmosphere, and the equable temperature of
the nights. Spring and autumn come next. ~No outdoor work
should be attempted in frosty weather. Frost destroys the
qualities of the oil on which the stability of the work depends,
and drives moisture deep into the wood-work.

Effects of Undercoats in Finish. — The undercoat of the
densest paint always has a decided influence on the colour of the
finished work. This is especially noticeable in flatted work. It
is often desirable to obtain richness by painting the last coat but
one in brighter colours than the required effect of the finished
coat. Thus a coat of vermilion-toned pink under a rosy pink finish
will give a depth and soft richness otherwise unobtainable. The
bloom of an apricot can be represented by painting a pink over
a full bright orange tone. The peculiar charm of the turquoise
can be got by using a pure blue over a green, and so on ad
infinitum. Richness in colour may often be obtained by tinting
the pigment with a transparent stainer. Thus raw sienna and
white makes a richer yellow than ochre and white. The com-
mixture of two transparent colours produce washy results, but
the use of two solidly opaque colours mixed together produces
chalky heaviness.

Retouching. — Painting must never be retouched after it has
commenced to set. If it should get rubbed and damaged it had

168 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

better be left to dry, as any touching up at this stage will only
make a bad matter worse, and such accidents frequently are less
observable when the paint has finished drying than when actually
occurring. If such places do mar the finished work, it is best to
repaint the whole piece at once.

Rubbing Down.— Rubbing down must be accomplished by
even and regular pressure, with special care to avoid rubbing
the paint bare upon projections, mouldings, &c. In rubbing to
produce a level surface as in felting down or rubbing filling up
preparations, a rotatory motion is used. In rubbing slightly to
remove dust, nibs, &c, between coats it is better to follow the
direction of the grain of the wood. In work that is to be treated
transparently — viz., glazed, stained, or varnished — the scratches
are less liable to show if in the direction of the grain.

The use of felt and powder pumice is not recommended for oil
paint generally. All that is desirable between the coats of paint
may be accomplished with glass paper ; while for preparatory
rubbing upon old paint the natural or prepared block pumice is
a far quicker and more reliable method. When the glass paper
clogs in rubbing down oil paint, a little powdered whiting may
be used under the paper, or a sprinkle of dry pumice powder.

Priming. — Care must be taken that wood-work is thoroughly
dry when painted, and especially when primed.

Knot the end grain parts of the wood, also sappy portions,
with a coat of diluted knotting. It will save an extra coat of
paint on these porous portions, and at the same time it does not
entirely destroy its absorptive power.

Painting Signs, &c. — Painting for sign-boards for lettering
in gold, or work for elaborate decoration, require special qualities
and care. The work must be hard enough to stand working
upon and washing. For this reason, colour made up in turpen-
tine and varnish is the best for the purpose, and will give a good
hard, reliable and durable finish. Slow drying varnish should
be used for the purpose. If time is not pressing it is by far the
best plan to varnish the board and allow it time to properly
harden before putting on the writing.

Painting Metal Work. — In painting metal work, iron
requires the greatest amount of attention. The paint for iron-
work should be harder than that for wood- work, as there is not
the same liability to shrinkage or swelling, and less absorption.
If varnish take the place of oil in the later coats, and the other
ingredients be used as recommended for wood-work, a good and
permanent job will certainly result, and the additional cost is
balanced by additional durability. Enough varnish or boiled

PLAIN PAINTING. 169

oil must always be used to prevent hardness and consequent
chipping.

Red lead is regarded as the best paint for iron, and may be
used for the two Hrst coats with boiled oil and a little turpentine.
The great point to be observed is to be sure that the iron is well
dried before painting. Cast iron is spongy in texture and
absorbs dampness readily. If all iron castings were well coated
with red lead and boiled oil while still warm, there would be
little trouble with rust. As soon as the casting cools it com-
mences to absorb moisture, and one-half of the efficacy of paint-
ing is lost by the delay.

Many other pigments are useful for iron- work, and are recom-
mended especially for the purpose. The oil, however, is the real
protector, and if that is there and good, the pigment only plays a
secondary part, the oil being itself an actual preservative against
rust.

Re-Painting Old Iron-Work. — Old iron-work should not be
washed with water prior to painting, but should be scraped and
well rubbed with card wire and coarse emery cloth. The rust may
be scrubbed off by the use of a lubricant, as paraffin. Special wire-
scrub brushes are made for this purpose by Messrs. Hamilton ifc
Co. It should not be painted within a week of wet weather, so
that no water can be imprisoned under the new paint. After the
first and second coats any colour may be used, as for wood-work.

In re-painting old iron-work, a coat of red lead should be first
used, or half of red lead may be added to the colour used, if it
can be done without prejudice to the covering power of the finish-
ing colour. Black has a good preservative effect on iron- work,
especially animal blacks, which are greasy in nature ; any of the
carbonic blacks can be mixed with red lead to produce a good
and durable brown.

Rust, if allowed to accumulate under paint will go on spread-
ing and lift the paint off. One of the fruitful causes of rust in
iron-work is the unprotected condition of the portions which are
screwed or bolted together before painting. All iron- work ought
to be painted in sections before being fitted together.

Painting Hot Pipes and Boilers, &e. — Hot water pipes,
coils, and hot air grids and boiler cases must be painted with
japanners' colour. This is made from equal parts of japanners'
gold size and turpentine, and varnished with japanners' varnish.
Fire stoves and gas stoves can, by the use of this preparation,
be painted in any colours, or bronzed, gilded, &c, and yet stand
great heat. The practice of blackleading stoves is quite un-
necessary, except for the actual bars and parts in direct contact

170 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

with the fire. All the other portions look far better enamelled,
the same colour as the other painted work in the room.

<'opper and zinc require scratching or roughing to take the
paint well and hold it firmly. A coat of Duresco is a good method
of treatment, over which is added a coat of varnish or varnish
colour. Oil colour must never be used as a first coat, as it will
peel off. Copper must be well washed with turpentine rags
before painting, to remove any machine oil or grease.

In all metal painting, good sharp colour is to be used for the
first coat, if the metal has been turned, drilled, fitted, or worked
upon. For castings this is not so necessary.

Painting Rough Wood-work. — In painting the rough ex-
terior boarding of sheds, barns, and outhouses, and for rough
fi nces, it is sometimes necessary to use a cheaper material than
ordinary oil paint. In such cases for new wood-work, Stockholm
tar and boiled oil in equal parts make a capital preparation^
giving the effect of stained pine at a moderate cost. It should
be mixed by heating together and well stirring. Ordinary
gas tar and turpentine, with some pitch added, is better than
plain gas tar, and dries a fairly hard and weather-resisting
black. Tar should always be applied hot for effective results,
and pitch added to increase its hardening. These tar mixtures
are all impervious to water, and good preservatives for rough
wood-work.

Quick Paints. — It is often desirable to paint and finish small
articles quickly. Shellac varnish, or patent knotting with
powder colour added, dries very rapidly with a good gloss, bears
handling, and stands well. Another method is to use distemper,
or water colour, and then varnish with spirit varnish. Patent
knotting is an extremely useful agent in touching up or making
good little odds and ends at the finish of a job, and can be
utilised in many ways. It must be of the best quality, made
from naphtha and good shellac. As a rapidly drying varnish to
stand handling it may be considered perfectly satisfactory for
small surfaces. Some of the methylated knotting sold is not
equally to be recommended for these purposes.

Painting Canvas. — In painting canvas, the absorption must
be stopped by sizing, or, as the oil paint oxidises, the canvas will
become brittle and useless, indeed, a slow combustion process
goes on which in time quite destroys the fibres.

Acid Resisting and Insulating Paints. — Paints and enamels
are now manufactured to resist acids and electrical currents.
Harland's air-drying resist enamel is useful for these purposes,
and may be used for electric light fittings and surroundings.

u<wwu

Plate 16.— SIMPLE BORDERS FOR BRUSH-WORK PRACTICE.

To face p. 170 ]

PLAIN PAINTING. 171

Fire -Proof Paints. — Asbestos lire- proof paints are also
obtainable, but do not largely concern the house painter. They
are useful for a variety of purposes which will occur to the
reader, and are capable of a limited amount of artistic treatment.
Full instructions for their use is supplied by the various makers.

Luminous Paints. — Luminous paint has also been placed,
upon the market, to which pigment the same remarks apply.

Lubrose Paints. — These paints are supplied quite ready for
use and require no thinning. The pigment is incorporated
during manufacture.

They can be applied directly upon wood or any metal, or upon
old paint. It is much used in Government Dockyards, &c, for
metal work. In no case should oil or turpentine be used with
it as the diluent is a form of wood naphtha. The manufacturer
supplies a suitable "thinnings."

Portland Cement. — The old difficulty of painting upon
Portland cement may be overcome by giving two coats of
alabastine prior to oil painting.

Grounds for Enamelling. —Enamels should always be laid
upon a hard ground without undue gloss. Three parts turpentine
and one part linseed oil, with a little French oil varnish, will
make a capital ground.

There should be no oily or elastic undercoat. Two coats of
the above paint on wood-work after priming, and one coat oil
paint and one of the above on walls, will be a good ground for
enamels. All enamels should be laid on liberally, and flat
enamel should be stippled.

Spray Painting. — The distribution of paint, distemper, or
stain by means of a spray diffuser in which the paint is
forced into a fine spray by a jet of air has long been possible,
though it is only recently that it has met with any trade
recognition. Now, however, the use of an aerograph spray has
become quite common for special purposes, and in America and
on the Continent has been more generally used than in England.

The rapidity with which it is distributed with a fine and
even grain over any given surface, whether flat or modelled,
without the intervention of a skilled painter, indicates an
increasing demand for the process. It is already in common
use in Government departments, for the preparation of paint
samples by manufacturers, in works and mills where articles have
to be painted prior to sending out, and in many other places.
The Aerograph Company supply a machine that will spread
anything from flatting or enamel to limewash far more quickly
and evenly than any painter can possibly do so with a brush.

172 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Stencilling can be beautifully executed by its aid, and the
colours can be blended together with the finest gradation.

The initial cost is heavy, as it involves the cost of an air
pump, a painter's outfit costing about £25, whilst a small outfit
suitable for decorating and lithography can be obtained for
about £10.

White Enamel. — A rapid method of white enamelling is as
follows: — First coat on new wood — Alabastine, 2£ measures;
water, 1 measure. Brush out well and lay off across grain.
Second coat — Add another \ measure of water to the above
proportions, finish with the grain. Let dry and rub down
with fine glass paper and cork. Third coat — Raw linseed
oil, driers, a very little white lead or zinc white, and |
turps. Fourth coat — White enamel. Fifth, if desired — Ditto.
The alabastine holds up the gloss of the enamel, and the
process is very rapid, as the whole can be done in two days.

Solvent Removers. — A new class of solvents prepared from
benzine and similar spirits has recently been invented. Of this
class Pyrol, Verdalene, and Pintoff are the leading makes.
They have the immense advantage of leaving the work ready for
painting again without any washing down or wetting, are easy
of application and r.ipid in effect.

The greatest objection to them is their strong odour,which pene-
trates into every part of the house in which they are being used.

They are also very inflammable, and require careful handling.

Pyrol was the first of these solvents on the market, and the
patent, which is of greatvalue,is nowbeing tested in the law courts.

Note to p. 156. — A special filling composition has recently been gaining
wide favour, known as Harland's enamel filling. It is in the form of
a stiff paste, and a special thinning is supplied as a diluent. Under severe
weather tests it has been proved a most durable filling, not given to
cracking or peeling, and holding most tenaciously to the wood, iron, or
other ground on which it is put. It may be spread stiffly with a trowel
or broad knife, or it may be brushed on more thinly. It can also be
mixed with dry white lead to make a hard and impervious "stopping."
The base appears to be a finely ground hard slate or granite, and the
thinning a special varnish diluted in correct proportion with oil of tur-
pentine. Two coats may be applied at four hoiirs interval, if necessary,
but a safer plan is to coat morning and night.

This filling cuts down specially well with natural pumice stone of a soft
character, leaving a good ground for priming. It can be used either prior
to or after painting. For front doors or shop fronts in exposed sunny
positions, if the work is first coated with the filling two or three coats,
and then rubbed down and finished in the usual way, cracking or blis-
tering are said to be impossible. A panel exposed to the sun and heat
from May to December presented a perfect surface.

173

CHAPTER XL

increasing use of hard woods
and of closely grainedsoft woods
of fine marking and texture,
such as cypress, sequoia, kauri,
Canadian redwood, jarrah, and
others, has rendered a know-
ledge of staining of considerably
increased utility to the painter.
Indeed, unless he is content to
pass a large proportion of his
legitimate work over to the cabinet-maker and French polisher,
it is absolutely necessary that he make himself acquainted with
the art and craft of colouring and finishing woods in their
natural grain. • _

These woods when naturally finished have a superior effect
to merely painted work. Formerly the only wood which was
left to the staining of the house-painter was pine or deal, and
the staining was invariably the mere imitation in colour of a
more expensive wood. All other staining was done by French
polishers. It is now quite customary to colour woods by stain-
ing to any and every hue

174 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

The Artistic Limitation of Staining.— -Staining may be

defined as coating with a colouring matter which changes the
hue without obscuring the grain or texture. It is accomplished
either by the use of transparent colours or chemical action,
or both. When, as is generally the case, it is applied to wood-
wook, the colouring is, or should be, limited in range to such
colours as are common to woods, or are suggestive of wood.
Artistic instinct revolts against the fashion now in vogue among
some classes, of staining woods in crude greens and steely greys,
mauves, and peacock blues. These colours do not impart that
structural solidity or importance to wood-work that is natural
and proper. It is not at all necessary that the colour used
should be the actual colour of any particular wood, as long as
it is not so far removed from a woody colour as to be altogether
unlike wood. Thus a bright red or an olive green, are not
colours which we find reproduced in any actual wood, but they
are so nearly allied to wood colours that they do not do violence
to one's sense of propriety.

Classes of Staining. — Staining may be roughly divided into
at least four classes — Water staining, oil staining, spirit staining,
and varnish staining. In addition to these, staining is used decora-
tively to produce various ornamental effects. French polishers
have a few other names for certain processes which are worthy
of note — viz., chemical staining, water coating, improving, in-
graining, mottle staining, overgraining, Arc. These devices are,
however, seldom used by painters, but might be usefully em-
ployed with more frequency.

Water Staining is the application of aqueous coloured solutions
obtained from colouring substances soluble in water and having
no body in them, as walnut juice, logwood extract, gamboge,
turmeric, indigo, the juice of berries and bark of trees, and some
pigments having little or no body, as Prussian blue, burnt and
raw Sienna, Vandyke brown, and alkaline dyes.

Chemical Staining is the use of aqueous solutions not in
themselves having colour, but which change the colour of the
woods to which they are applied, as soda, lime, potash, ammonia,
various sulphates and salts.

Water Coating is the use of body colcmrs ground in water, as
ochre, Umber, Venetian red, chrome, drop black, &c. It is in
reality a form of distempering, differing, however, in the fact
that it is not all left upon the wood to dry. Size is added to
bind the colour, as in distempering. This process, of course,
hides the natural grain of the wood somewhat, and disguises
its shortcomings and defects.

STAINING. 175

Oil Staining is, as its name implies, the use of oil colours of a
more or less transparent nature, as the Siennas, Vandyke brown,
Prussian bine and brown, and the aniline and cochineal lakes.

Varnish Staining consists in the use of varnish with the oil
stains described in the last paragraph. The varnish is adried to
stop absorption, and prepare the work for varnishing or surface
polishing.

Spirit Staining is akin to oil staining, but certain aniline and
other dyes are more tractable and more easily miscible in spirit
than in oil or water mediums, and are consequently used in this
form.

Improving is a term used to denote a mere brightening of the
actual colour of the wood, without changing its hue. It may be
accomplished by either or any of the staining processes used
singly or in combination.

Natural Graining is the adding to the wood more markings, in
order that plain pieces may be made fuller of interest and richer
in grain. It does not imply a change in the kind of wood. All
the processes used in ordinary graining, as mottling, pencilling,
and overgraining, are resorted to in this operation.

Wax Stains.— Oak and other hard woods are often wax
stained and polished by hand. Wax stains are made from a
mixture of beeswax and turpentine, and oil colours, such as
Vandyke brown, burnt Sienna, &c. They are applied freely
when warm, and when well soaked in and hardened, say in
twelve hours, a fine dull eggshell polish is produced by briskly
rubbing with a hard shoe brush, or a roughish piece of jute canvas.

Comparative Utility of Stains. — Spirit stains evaporate so
quickly, as to require great expertness in handling in order to
avoid patchiness and unequal depth. Varnish stains are only
useful where economy is of more importance than durability,
and when a high finish is not requisite. A comparison between
the different classes of stain shows that the most durable stain
is an oil stain. This has a protective as well as a decorative
value, and the oil, by reason of its slowness in drying, penetrates
very deeply into the pores of the wood. Water stains are
likely to raise the grain in the wood, and roughen its surface.
They enhance the appearance of the grain if it be good, as the
resinous parts resist the action of the water, and remain in
strong contrast with the softer and spongy portions. They dry
quickly and are inexpensive.

Polishing or varnishing can be done upon all the different
classes of stain. The processes are dealt with under the head of
Varnishing.

176 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

The great desiderata in staining are clarity, evenness, and
depth.

Application of Stains. — Large brushes should be used, and
the work saturated and brushed in, so that the wood takes as
deep a colour as the colour of stain used will make it. It is
always better to err on the light side in making up the stain, as
the work can always be gone over again to deepen it further.
It is difficult to evenly manipulate a very deep stain on white
wood in one coat. A flat duster or a softener may be used to
remove brush marks and keep the stain even.

It will sometimes be necessary to stain wood in such a way
as to subdue or partially hide the natural markings. This can
be well done by the use of oil stains, and stippling, or flogging it
while fully wet, and before it has entirely soaked in.

Water staining upon new wood-work should be done upon the
unprepared wood as it has left the plane, and without glass
papering. It will require sizing prior to varnishing, if the
varnishing is to be limited to one or two coats ; but the work
will be more durable if the sizing be omitted, and a further coat
of varnish given instead. Resinous woods, such as pitch pine,
should be oil stained, or varnish or spirit stained, and not sized
before varnishing.

In varnishing woods in their natural colour, sizing may be used
either before or after the first coat of varnish, to assist in stopping
the absorption, or a coat of thin knotting may be used first
instead of the size. Varnish only is, however, the best for
transparency and durability. This will necessitate at least three,
generally four, coats of varnish. Cheap and fairly good finish
may be secured by twice sizing and once varnishing.

Staining Floors. — When staining floors they must first be
thoroughly cleansed. After washing in the ordinary way, dilute
oxalic acid may be used to remove stains of ink or iron rust, &c.
Floors should always be oil or beeswax stained, so that the stain
penetrates well into the wood . Oil stained floors can be varnished,
but beeswax stain must be polished with beeswax and turpentine
and a stiff, short shoe brush — a somewhat laborious and costly
process for the housekeeper. It is necessary that whatever is
used, the wood should be thoroughly well saturated. Sizing and
knotting preparatory to staining is not to be recommended, as,
if this is used, the stain will chip off and tread up white and
shabbydooking in a short time.

It is possible to add to the prominence of the grain of wood
by staining. This can be done by using water stain hot, or by
oil stain made much deeper than the work is to appear when

STAINING. 177

finished. In either case the stain should be laid on freely and
allowed to thoroughly soak in. In the case of oil stain it may
be allowed a quarter of an hour to penetrate, and the superfluous
stain may then be wiped off with rags.

Oiling Woods. — Linseed oil is applied to wood before polish-
ing or varnishing or without any after operation, to bring out
the lustre, colour, and beauty of the grain. Boiled oil should be
used for this purpose, and it should be of good quality ; a little
terebine must be added to assist the drying.

Before staining wood-work, go over the end grain and
sappy portions with a coat of thin knotting so as to reduce the
absorbency of these parts. If this is not done they will come
out black against the other portions of the work.

It is necessary to bear in mind that all woods have a tendency
to deepen in colour when exposed to the atmosphere. This is
extremely noticeable in pine, which rapidly darkens. The
staining should therefore be lighter and brighter than you wish
the work to appear when permanently toned with age. Allow-
ance should also be made for subsequent varnishing and polish-
ing. It is also the nature of all oils and varnishes to deepen
and become discoloured with age in a greater degree than the
natural wood will do.

When oil or varnish stains are used upon wood, without the
intervention of size or shellac, this tendency will be mutually
assisted, and the darkening or ageing goes on at an increased
speed. Woods containing a large quantity of oil or resinous
matter deepen more quickly than dry light woods.

List of Stains. — The following list of stains may be used
for the classes of staining indicated : —

Water Staining.
Stephens' or Mander's prepared stains.
Vandyke brown in water.
Raw and burnt Sienna in water.
Kaw and burnt Umber in water.
Indigo in water.
Blue black in water.
Mahogany lake in water.

Alkaline dyes (not to be used with aniline dyes).
Aniliue dyes (not to be used with alkaline dyes).
Yellow lake in water.
Terra vert in water.
Gamboge in water.
And other transparent or partially transparent pigments.

Oil Staining.
Ail the pigments named above, and others that are trans-

178 PAINTING AND DKCORATING.

parent but ground in linseed oil and with a little liquid driers,
Japanners' black (best) thinned with turpentine; bitumen or
asphaltum thinned with turpentine.

Spirit Stains.

Boiled and macerated solutions of the various dyewoods and
dyestuffs — as logwood, Sanders wood, Brazilian redwood, ani-
line powders, dragon's blood, turmeric, arsenate of copper,
saffron, indigo, and others ; also various berries, cochineal, &c.

Chemical Staining.

Alkaline manganates, permanganate of potash and Epsom
salts, liquid ammonia, carbonate of soda, bichromate of potash,
acetic acid, and other substances.

Water Coating.

Ochres, Umbers, Venetian red, lamp black, rose pink, all in
size.

The following stains and dyes, &c, are recommended for the
special purposes named : —

To deepen tJce natural colour of oak, mahogany, and other looods.

1 oz. Bichromate of potash.
1 oz. Carbonate of soda.
1 quart boiling water.

Apply with a large sponge, as this mixture destroys brushes.

To deepen oak. — Stand the article in a room, in which place
open saucers of liquid ammonia and seal up all the crevices, so
that the fumes do not escape. Or, coat the article with a
saturated solution of ammonia diluted with water.

Walnut stain. — 1 oz. Epsom salts, 1 oz. permanganate of
potash dissolved separately in 1 pint each of boiling water, and
mixed together and applied hot with a fibre (not bristle) brush
or a sponge.

Mahogany stain. — Spirits of wine, 4 oz., dragon's blood, 1 oz.
Dissolve and thin with methylated spirit to required depth.

Rosewood stain. — A decoction of logwood and red Sanders
wood in naphtha, is boiled to extract the stain.

Green stains. — Yellow arsenic and indigo, or indigo and
turmeric dissolved in water or spirit.

Yelloivs and yellow browns. — Strong decoctions of tea, coffee,
saffron, turmeric, or aloes. These may be intermixed.

STAINING. 179

Reds. — Decoctions of cochineal, Brazil chips, logwood, or
archil. These may be mixed with the above yellows.

Grey and brown. — Decoctions of vinegar in which a few scraps
of iron have been placed.

Black. — Lamp black or gas soot ; the latter is a jet black
(collect it upon an iron plate).

Greens. — Wood, indigo, verdigris, or vitriol added to the above
yellows or reels.

Blues. — The above four are used in green stains-
Water coatings to produce — all prepared in size —

Mahogany. — Venetian red and ochre and mahogany lake.

Rosewood. — Mahogany lake, rose pink, and lamp black.

Oak. — Burnt Umber and ochre.

Ebony. — Irony black.

Satin wood or maple. — Yellow ochre and chrome.

Walnut. — Burnt Umber and Venetian red:

Apply these while the size is in solution, and wipe down with
a dusting brush, leaving streaky marks: size and varnish.
This process is useful for temporary office work or cheap
furniture.

Ornamental Staining. — Many decorative effects are obtained
by the skilful use of staining, and the following processes may
be briefly recapitulated here :—

Effects much resembling inlay or intarsia work may be
obtained in several ways, all differing in detail and appearance.

A pattern may be cut out of lining paper and gummed or
pasted to the panel, care being taken not to soil any other
portion than that covered by the paper. The paper should be
well sized before the pattern is cut out of it. When the paste
has elided, the panel may be oil stained, the paper protecting
those portions of the wood that it covers. When the oil stain
is dry, a little soaking with water will detach the paper, leaving
a clean wood pattern on a stained ground. The paste or gum
prevents the oil stain from running underneath the paper.

Patterns may be stencilled in knotting or spirit varnish upon
a panel ; the portion thus stencilled upon will resist water stain,
which may be applied to the remainder of the panel, resulting
in a pattern of clear wood upon a stained ground as before.
Colour may be mixed with the knotting or varnish and a poly-
chromatic effect produced in the same way. A stencil may be
put upon the bare wood in deep rich varnish stains blended by
stencilling, and the whole panel afterwards stained with a
sponge and water stain to the required depth. A stencil may
be put upon the bare wood in solid body colour, or in gold or

180 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

silver, the panel being first clear sized, or not, as the worker
prefers. When this is dry the panel may be stained all over
with various stains in water, and the superfluous stains wiped
oft' with a leather, leaving the gold or other surface clear and
clean. A panel may be sized twice with clear size and decorated
in any desired manner upon the clear wood ground, the wood
being allowed to show through the painting. When the painting
is dry the panel may be washed, removing the size with warm
water, and then stained to any depth, the stain allowed to
penetrate, and then the superfluous stain wiped off clean, leaving
the painting clear and effective.

Another method of decorating in stain is to pounce the design
upon the bare wood, and outline the pattern with fine brown or
black lines, then stain between the lines with oil, spirit, or water
stains, and finally, varnish. The brown lines will keep the
stains from impinging on each other. If light lines are desired
the panel will require first sizing twice, then outlining in Bruns-
wick black, then washing to remove the size, next staining in
water stains, and, finally, the Brunswick black must be removed
by a free use of turpentine.

Several different depths of stain may be obtained upon one
panel by commencing with the bare wood and using water stains.
Stain with the lightest stain required first, all over the panel.
Then coat the portions which are intended to remain in that
depth with thick white hard varnish, and again stain the panel
over with the next deeper stain; when this is dry cover the
parts that are to remain this depth with the varnish and allow
it to dry ; then stain all over again with the next depth of stain,
and again varnish the parts that you desire to be finished in that
depth ; and so on, till the whole of the stains are in. Finally,
remove the varnish by applying methylated spirit and a sponge,
which will not affect the stain, and polish or varnish in the
ordinary way.

Another method of procedure that may be adopted is to size
and varnish the panel, and then coat any parts that you wish to
remain uncoloured, with Brunswick black. Then stain the
panel over with a water colour stain, which will not penetrate;
allow it to dry and remove the Brunswick with turpentine, leav-
ing the water colour uninjured. This is one of the best methods
of obtaining clear, sharp lines of light stain upon a deep ground.

Gilding may be done upon the bare wood and afterwards the
wood-work way be stained (of course it is assumed that the wood
is sized before gilding in the ordinary manner, first with glue
size, and afterwards with oil gold size). The glue size must be

STAINING. 181

washed off with warm water after gilding is dune, and then the
panel can be stained all over.

These ideas can be extended, elaborated, and used in con-
junction with advantage ; their scope being only limited by the
invention and resource of the decorator.

White wood and pine is an admirable ground for flower and
decorative painting. Aniline powder colours ground in egg
white to the consistency of tube colours, and used in the same
manner as tube colours, haAre the compound property of colouring
the work, staying where they are put without spreading, and
stopping the suction. They have a soft and velvety effect, and
the wood can be stained or varnished over after they are stopped
out with a coat of egg size, or spirit varnish, and wiped off
cleanly from the painting with a clean soft rag.

Decorative effects upon plaster can be produced by the use of
stain. The plaster ground must not be too hard or impervious
nor too highly trowelled. Oil and spirit stains are the best for
this class of work.

Decorative effects on stains should be somewhat conventional
in design, as the grain of the wood showing through the stain,
while adding beauty to the texture, and imparting luminosity
to the work, makes any attempt at naturalistic painting unsuit-
able to the material and to the method.

Flowers, fruit, figures, and ornament can be painted in body
oil colours upon stained wood grounds, obscuring the grain, with
perfect good taste and a good effect.

Patterns which have the effect of inlay are admissible, but
good judgment is not consistent with any attempts to imitate
inlay, marqueterie, or intarsia work, especially as when freed
from the trammels and limitations that surround the practice of
these arts, much greater scope is afforded the designer. Stained
ornament upon natural woods is so beautiful in itself that it is
quite superfluous to attempt to make it appear other than it is
by taking advantage of its superficial resemblance to inlay. The
aim of the decorator should rather be directed to taking full ad-
vantage of the freedom possessed by the brush as contrasted with
the saw, and of the ease and cheapness of the manipulation when
compared to that of inlaying.

The sketches distributed through this chapter are suggestive
of the class of design best suited to the method, and are indica-
tive of the direction that the work should take.

Matsine. — A notable addition to the available staining sub-
stances is the range of transparent colours sold under the
proprietary name of " Matsine."

182 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

This material is a preparation of very transparent pigments
gound in spirit with a certain amount of fixative. It gives an
extremely clear dye-like stain, adds to the life of the wood,
wipes clear off the hard grain, and sinks into the soft parts
deeply.

It is ready for immediate use when thinned with turpentine,
and leaves a satisfactory finish much akin to wax-polish without
further treatment, or may be varnished in the usual manner
without sizing.

Matsine stains are useful for tinting, or can be used for trans-
parency painting. They are the best medium for tapestry
painting.

Wood Fillers.— A new material that is now much used is
wood filler — a substance for stopping the pores and forming a
base for polish or varnish. Blume's liquid filler, with stains
specially made to follow it, is one of the most satisfactory.

Naphthaline Stains. — These are coming into favour for cheap
work. They have great penetrative power, dry rapidly, and
combine well with pine woods. A rich brown when used full
strength, they can be modified by adding ordinary oil stainers.

Cracks in Stained Floors. — After numerous trials, a new
"crack filler " has been devised by an American manufacturer.
Johnson's crack filler will not chip away or kick up, and takes
the stain, especially their own wax stains, admirably. No
other substance has quite the same properties, as it comes
between putty and alabastine in character.

183

CHAPTER XII.

ARNISH is a material of transparent
or semi-transparent appearance, and is
used either as a protective or preserva-
tive agent, or as a means of obtaining a
high finish. Varnishes are sometimes
. coloured by reason of their composition,
as in black varnish or Japan ; or by the
addition of dyestuffs, as in lacquers.
Japans and enamels are admixtures of
varnish and colouring matter, sometimes
in a transparent and sometimes in an opaque form.

Classes of Varnish. —There are water varnishes, as gum
Arabic or isinglass dissolved in water. Spirit varnishes, viz.: —
Gums or resins dissolved in spirits, as patent knotting, or white
hard varnish, French polish, &c. Oil varnishes, viz.: — Gums and
resins dissolved in oils, as mastic varnish, copal oak varnish, &c.
There are also natural varnishes, as lacquers, india rubber
solution, &c.

Lacquer and spirit varnishes dry and harden by the evapora-
tion of the volatile spirit, leaving the gum as a thin shell over
the surface of the work. Oil varnish dries by the absorption of
the oxygen in the atmosphere solidifying the oil with the gum,

184 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

and forming a skin of preservative character. A certain amount
of evaporation also takes place, as some proportion of spirit is
usually added to oil varnishes to make them freely workable.

The better class of varnishes contains a large percentage of oil,
and are slow in drying.

The varnishes principally used by the painter are as follow : —

Oil Varnishes.— Mastic varnish, chieily used for pictures and
paintings of value.

White oil varnishes, known variously as French oil, Ooburg,
white marble varnish, &,c, for the best internal work.

Pale oil varnishes, as pale copal, pale carriage varnish, maple-
varnish, <fec, both elastic for external work, and hard for inside
work.

Medium oil varnishes, known by many names, as pale oak,
carriage, &c, made in both outside and inside varieties.

Dark oil varnish, known as oak varnish, church oak, hard
oak, &e, both inside and outside.

Spirit Varnishes. — Flatting varnish, a varnish that dries
without gloss.

Paper varnish, a pale varnish used on wall papers, and having
a large amount of turpentine in its composition.

Japanners' varnish also contains a large quantity of turps, but
is less white than paper varnish.

Patent knotting, a mixture of shellac and naphtha, or other
spirit.

White and brown hard spirit varnish, made from l'esins, gums,
and methylated spirits of wine.

French polish and finishes, consisting of shellac and spirits of
wine.

The only water varnishes that are much used are solutions of
gum or isinglass, for the protection of paper. We have also
Mander's water flatting varnish, which can be used upon paper
without previous sizing.

Elastic and Hard Varnishes. — By far the most generally
used are the oil varnishes, which dry by oxidization of the oils
and the evaporation of the turpentine, from which they are
compounded, producing a leather-like, elastic, and transparent
skin.

Elastic varnishes, or outside varnishes, are those which dry
sufficiently hard to stand handling, but are, as the term implies,
yielding enough to contract and expand with the changes of
temperature to which they are subjected. These varnishes are
often useful for internal work where the same conditions are in
force, as upon indoor sashes and shutters.

VARNISH AND VARNISHING. 185

It will be noticed often that these portions of the room have
cracked and perished, while the rest of the varnished work is in
good condition.

The difference between elastic and hard varnishes depends in
the better qualities upon the proportion of oil to turpentine in
the varnish, the former rendering the varnish elastic, and the
latter hard. The better qualities of elastic varnishes are made
entirely from elastic gums, while the hard varnishes have gums
which are more resinous in their nature. The commoner classes
of hard varnish are almost entirely produced from resins, and
will not stand hard wear.

The quality in working of a varnish depends greatly upon its
age, also on the manner and place of its storage. It is impos-
sible in making the varnish to entirely dissolve all the minute
particles of gum. These are gradually reduced by filtration, but
the fine particles are only removed by allowing the varnish to
stand in large tanks and thoroughly settle. If they are not
removed, they will appear many times magnified when spread
upon the work.

Successive Coats of Varnish. — In precisely the same way
that we graduate the coats of paint in painting so that we do not
get an expansive coat beneath a hard unyielding one, so we pro-
ceed in the matter of varnishes. There must be a relative and
near resemblance between the character of each coat and the one
next to it. The hardest of all varnishes are the spirit varnishes
and lacquers ; these must on no account be used either over or
under oil varnish. In the first case, they would inevitably crack
and ci'awl ; and in the latter case, would have such a hard sur-
face as to present no key for the coat of oil varnish, which would
be easily peeled off. Spirit varnishes will not stand hard wear,
they are subject to easy abrasion.

Applying Varnish. — In the application of varnish, the most
important point to observe is absolute and scrupulous cleanliness.
To make a perfect job, it is necessary to have a perfectly clean
surface, free from dust, grease, or other impurity ; a perfectly
clean pot, a perfectly clean brush, and a perfectly clean atmos-
phere. How clean, only those who have experience understand.

The necessary good surface should be prepared before the work
arrives at the varnishing stage by rubbing down and filling up
all inequalities of surface. If the work is at all greasy and the
varnish does not flow evenly, it must be leathered down briskly
with the leather just damp. If very oily, a little fuller's earth
may be dissolved in the water that the leather is damped in.

The varnishes used should always be the best of their respec-

186 painting and decorating.

tive kinds from well-known and tested makers. A great many
jobs are spoiled by the constant change of material from that of
one maker to another. In order to obtain good results under
the varying conditions of general work it is necessary to be
acquainted with the action and peculiarities of the varnish used,
under all conditions, and this cannot be done if the make of
varnish is frequently changed. Indeed, the same argument
applies to most painters' materials. In using a new material it
is always a question of paying in failures for experience, and
there is every reason why this should not be repeated oftener
than is really necessary.

In the experience of the writer there are excellent and in
■some cases perfect varnishes by almost every maker; but certain
makers excel particularly with special kinds, and each class of
varnish requires special and unique conditions if it is to appear
at its best. It would not be within the scope of possibility to
enter into all the details of this question, and it would be in-
vidious to select special makers of varnish for praise, especially
as the writer's main experience has, in consistency with his
opinions, been limited to a few tried makers. Almost every
make of varnish has, however, been given a more or less limited
trial for the purpose of this work.

Without in any degree depreciating the value of other varnishes
it may be remarked that many years' experience has proved the
following special varnishes to be among the writer's favourites: —

Principal Varnishes in Use. — Mander's white Coburg var-
nish or white oil varnish for best interior white work, or Harland's
white marble ditto.

French oil varnislies (Turner's).

Carriage varnish (Harland's).

Flatting varnishes; Mander's encaustic. Black japan (Lloyds').
Knotting (Tabor & Trego). Terebine (Power's). Japanners
(Noble &, Hoare). Inside oak (Mander's, Harland's, Noble &,
Hoare, Turner's). AVhite enamel (Harland's). Dark oak
(Mander's). Body varnish (Blume's). Black Japan (Blume's).
The number of reliable varnish manufacturers are yearly in-
creasing, as a wider knowledge of scientific methods are dis-
placing the old system of proprietary and secret recipes.

On the whole, the greatest amount of satisfaction has been
given the writer by Mander's and Harland's makes, yet there
are some certain varnishes of these makers that may, in the
writer's opinion, be beaten by other makes.

Precautions. — Varnish tins must never be left open, and
must be stored in a warm dry place not above 80" Fahr.

VARNISH AND VARNISHING. 187

No varnish left in the can from which it has been used must be
returned to the varnish bottle. No varnish must ever be
thinned without a knowledge of its components.

Care should be taken in selecting a perfectly clean vessel to
work from, and it should be dusted out and then wiped with
a clean, damp leather. The writer has a preference for glazed
pots or jars, regarding them as cleaner and more easily cleaned
than tins and kettles.

Bennett's Patent Can. — A new can has recently been devised
and patented under the above name to ensure that clean varnish
shall remain free from brush scrapings during the progress of
the work.

The can or kettle is double, like a steam cooker or glue pot, but
the inner kettle, which is enamelled, is suspended by ears in the
centre of the outer one, so that, as the workman draws the brush
against the outer edge to clear it of stale varnish that has
worked up to the heel of the brush, the varnish expelled runs
down between the two kettles. It has also a device for keeping
the brushes clean when not in use. The inner can lifts out, so
that the inferior varnish can be used for inferior parts of the
work.

In pouring the varnish out of the cans into the vessel from
which it is to be used, see that it does not get shaken up or dis-
turbed, as there is always a minute settlement, and also beware
of allowing it to aerate; pour slowly down the side of the vessel.
The tin containing the varnish should not have been moved or
shaken for at least a week, and the last half pint in each tin
should be used up for less particular work.

The brushes for varnishing should be of best quality hog-hair,
and should be kept exclusively for the purpose ; when not in
use they may be stood, or rather suspended, well over the stock
in varnish or in boiled oil ; and a piece of paper or a lid should
be fitted over the oil vessel to keep out all dust and prevent
skimming over. Oval or fiat brushes are the best shape for
varnishing, the latter being the most suitable for high-class work.
A varnish brush improves with age and wear until the bristles
get too short for use.

Straining Varnishes. — Varnish ought not to require
straining, but if by reason of accidental agitation or other cause
it does require it, the straining is best accomplished by lightly
plugging a wide-nosed funnel with about an inch and a half of
cotton wool, and tying a bit of coarse muslin over the nozzle to
keep it in ; the varnish is then allowed to trickle through of its
own weight. A fine cambric or linen handkerchief makes a

-188 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

fairly good strainer, if the varnish be allowed to find its way
through without any stirring or forcing.

Selection of Varnishes. — In selecting varnishes for various
portions of the work, care and experience are very necessary.
The varnish makers will always give all information as to the
varnish supplied and its qualities and capabilities, but only long
experience will form a really reliable guide. In work which it
is intended to felt down, a good quality hard oil varnish is
desirable; quick hard varnishes rub up chalky and scratch
readily. The paleness of a varnish is not always a criterion of its
value, and the palest varnishes are not desirable for general work ;
a medium pale copal oak fulfils most purposes of the house painter.

Hints on Varnishing. — In applying the varnish to the work
the following points must be attended to. Flow on a good body
of varnish and do not rub it out in the least barely; in fact, put
on as much as you can without allowing it to run or streak.
This requires tact and skill, and it is better to have too little on
than to allow of runs. A skilful hand will put on much more,
and make it stay where it is put, than a novice can do.

Be careful to lay it equally over the whole of the surface, not
thinner in one part than in another. Do not allow it to accumu-
late in corners, and crevices, and quirks of mouldings, where it
will wrinkle and gather, even if it does not find its way out on
to the level surface and produce runs. Do not work it about
unnecessarily ; it must not be crossed and recrossed like paint,
but judgment must be used to place it where you require it,
straight away, without any unnecessai'y after-spreading. When
giving under coats of varnish which are to be rubbed down, it
is well to use less than for a finishing coat, as the varnish dries
from the outside, and if the coat be a thick heavy one, it will
take too long to harden before you can rub it down with safety
and certainty. The edges of the wet varnish must not be
allowed to set before attempting to join on with another patch,
but must be kept well alive. In order to accomplish this it is
sometimes desirable to disregai'd the usual order of working ;
thus in the stiles of a door it is well to commence with top rail,
and bring all the stiles and muntins along downwards together,
should anything appear wrong after the varnishing has been
done a few minutes, it had better be allowed to dry as it is, as
any retouching will be sure to show ; or, the whole may be
cleaned off with turpentine.

A perfect job of varnishing cannot be produced with less than
four coats, of which the first one should be well felted down with
ground pumice stone.

S-*-*r» ' \ \ t : \ .#v * H Mil

L f J I S ( J L * il r J \ 5 'L *t I

l^^l

Plate 17.- BORDERS FOR BRUSH-WORK PRACTICE.
To fact p. 188.]

VARNISH. 189

All varnishing should be done in as warm a temperature as is
possible, certainly not less than 70° Fahr. The failure to comply
with this injunction is answerable for much disappointment, and
it is not always possible to work under these necessary restric-
tions. The room in which you intend to work should be well
swept, and the dust, if any, laid by sprinkling the floor with water.

Do not mix varnishes of different makes, unless you know by
experience what the result will be ; not that there is danger in
mixing two varnishes of a similar class ; indeed, it is often desir-
able to body up a new varnish by the addition of older stock.
Flatting varnish may be mixed with copal varnish to obtain
medium or egg-shell gloss. Japan black may be mixed with
copal varnish to obtain a thin transparent stained varnish ; and
many other mixtures are both desirable and useful.

Spirit varnishes should never be mixed with oil varnishes or
lacquers ; free turps or raw oil should not be added to varnish.

Light is necessary to the proper hardening of varnish, as
well as air.

The sousing of newly varnished work (after it is dry) with clear,
cold water will harden it materially, as water contains a high
percentage of oxygen, which it freely gives out to the varnish.

In ordinary practice it is sometimes useful to double coat work
instead of felting down and re- varnishing. A very fine gloss can
be got by double coating. Proceed in the following manner : —
Give the work a medium coat of varnish first, and when this is
dry but still very tacky, repeat the coat of same varnish, work-
ing very lightly and rapidly, taking care not to work up the under
coating. Great care and skill is required to avoid disturbing
the new under coat surface, and the less hard it is when top
coated the more perfect will the gloss and finish be. No pre-
paration must be used between the two coats. If the under
coat is too dry there will be danger of cissing.

Surfaces for Varnishing. — All surfaces for varnishing should
be prepared in such a way as to admit of no absorption of any
portion of the varnish. Paperhangings and distemper work must
be sized with clear glue size or size made from gelatine, which is
better for this purpose than the former. When the colours upon
the paper or other surface are not well fixed the size should be
used cold in the form of a weak jelly, such as may be easily
spread by the brush. Two coats will be necessary, and great
care must be exercised in making sure that every portion of the
work has been properly coated with the size, or the varnish will
be absorbed and produce a discoloration.

190 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

New wood must be sized if it is desired that the varnish shall
hold out in one or two coats, but if not, the preservation of the
work is best ensured by varnishing directly on the wood surface
— a thin or weak coat of isinglass size can then be interposed
between the first and second coat of varnish. If economy is not
in question it is preferable to give three coats of varnish, or even
four, and dispense with the sizing altogether.

Gilding should not be varnished over unless for special reasons.
The gold retains its colour better without varnish, as the varnish
deepens and mars the lustre of gold.

In varnishing on painted work, the ground must be free from
oiliness. This can be ensured by washing the work down with
a little fuller's earth water, or by merely leathering or spong-
ing the work with a rather dry sponge dipped in a solution of
2 ounces of fuller's earth in a quart of water. Some pigments,
notably red lead, barytes, and some kinds of driers, exert a dele-
terious influence upon the finish of varnished work. The
ground for good varnishing should be free from these pigments.
Patent driers, red lead, and chalky or bituminous colours, as
whiting and Vandyke brown, can easily be avoided. The two
latter are especially to be guarded against in grained oak work.
The practice of using soap or rain water in graining colour is
also a bad one for the varnish. Soda and soap suds are some-
times used for killing grease on a surface which is afterwards
varnished — unless it is very thoroughly rinsed in clean water, it
is a dangerous practice.

The delicate nature of the composition of varnishes, and the
ease with which good work may be ruined by the atmosphere,
dust, and by the many adverse conditions under which the work
may be done, lead us to add that even with the utmost care the
results of varnishing are often unsatisfactory and disappointing,
indeed, frequently puzzling to the worker, who has used, as he
thinks, every precaution to ensure success and still finds an im-
perfect finish.

It must be borne in mind th«t the little specks which mar the
surface of the varnish are many times magnified in a good
lustrous varnish, and that the better and more glossy the surface,
the more these blemishes will assert themselves. Carriage work
frequently has as many as 12 coats of varnish and then looks
perfect, but when the work first leaves the shop it shows many
minute specks which are soon lost by the repeated washings
which the work receives. The production of any painted or
varnished surface equal to a piece of polished plate glass is a
dream and delusion, and can only be realised by hand polishing,

VARNISH. 191

of which more anon. However perfect the condition of the var-
nish and the work, the "lintspecks
floating in the silent air " will assert
themselves.

Felting Down Varnish. — In felt-
ing down varnishes for subsequent
coatings, a rubber of felt (Fig. 58) or
a block composed of cloth is used.
The grinding agent is pumice stone Fl^ ?8.-Felt smoothing
, ° ,. & . ° , n n paint or varnish with

powder of varying degrees of fineness ; pumice powder,

for the most highly finished work it

is well to levigate the pumice stone to avoid all extraneous grit
or foreign matter which may have found its way into the powder.
A long strip of list, wound round in a coil tightly and tied with
a tape makes a good rubber, but solid felt rubbers are made by
Hamilton & Co., of which we give an illustration (Fig. 58), and
these are so cheap that home-made substitutes are not necessary.

First clamp the work with a sponge, using just enough good
yellow soap to prevent the water cissing ; then soak the felt in
water and sprinkle a little pumice on its face, and gently rub
with a light circular motion, taking large sweeps similar to the
method of working French polish, and going systematically and
regularly over the whole surface many times. The rubbing
should be continued until a uniform dullness of surface is
obtained, showing no light streaks or patches.

The work must be carefully watched lest the coat should be
cut right through and damage be done to the ground.

To levigate the pumice powder for finishing fine work, stir a
pound in a large basin of water, allow the coarser pai'ticles to
settle and then pour off the top water into a second basin ; the
finest of the powder will be in this water and will in due time
settle at the bottom, leaving the water clean. A special felt will
be kept for fine powder, so that no coarse particles can get into
the work and cause scratches.

Polishing Varnished. Work. — When it is desired to finish
work by hand polishing, the final fine rubbing with pumice is
succeeded by a yet finer one, in which rotten-stone powder is
used. This is sometimes used in linseed oil, and the rubber is a
wad of cotton wool covered with soft cambric or fine, well-worn
calico. The rubbing is done in the same Avay as before, very
lightly and in a circular direction. When the surface is as fair
and smooth as can be obtained, the final polishing is got by tak-
ing a loose ball of medicated cotton wool and very fine wheat
flour and polishing. It is important that the rotten-stone and

192 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

flour polishing should be done leisurely to avoid heating the
varnish. A rapid polish can be obtained by brisk rubbing, but
it is only fleeting and very irregulai*— steady, persistent, and
light easy rubbing is what is requisite. Some painters profess
to obtain the final polish with the palm of the hand, or rather
the ball of the thumb, but this is an obsolete and fanciful idea —
all that is desired may be obtained in the way described.

Faults in Varnishing. — There are several notable faults in
varnishing on which a few words are desirable. They are here
taken seriatim.

First, blooming — that is, the gathering upon the surface of a
sort of mist, which is permanent or intermittent according to
circumstances. The smooth, glossy surface offered to the air by
good varnish induces condensation upon it of the moisture in the
atmosphere. If this takes place before due hardening of the
varnish, bloom will result. The same cause produces the same
effect on gilded surfaces in oil gold size if the ground is well got
up. Extreme cold upon a newly- varnished surface, or frost upon
an old varnished surface have the same effect. Tt is sometimes
caused by water in the varnish — i.e., moisture in the gum from
which it has been made, and which has not been properly elim-
inated. Resin varnishes and cheap varnishes give little trouble
in this respect ; it is the best class that are apt to bloom.
Blooming due to moisture or frost may be remedied and removed
by warmth, washing and brisk rubbing with warm water, or rub-
bing with a wad of wool and olive oil. When due to the varnish
itself it can seldom be eradicated entirely without re-varnishing.

Any unequal amount of varnish upon a given space will affect
the gloss. Where barely applied there will be less gloss than
where freely applied; these dead patches are referred to as being
"sleepy." Abnormal suction in the under ground in patches
will cause a similar defect.

Pinholing and Cissing are complaints of a similar class, caused
by a recession of the varnish from a given point, usually a grease
spot or a minute hole. It must be provided against by thorough
rubbing down and leathering before varnishing.

Pock Marks or Pitting are marks or indentations which do not
extend to the ground of the work, but are in the varnish
itself. They are caused by turps in the varnish brush, hot moist
air in the room when the varnish is applied, the presence of
smoke or steam, and the atmospheric conditions known by some
as a "blight" — viz., a dull, leaden heat often experienced in
summer. These marks can only be removed by flatting down
and re-varnishing.

VARNISH. 193

Grittiness is sometimes caused in ihe varnish by its being
stored in a cold damp atmosphere, by frost upon the cans during
transit, and by chill to the varnish.

Specks are formed in varnish by like conditions. No cure is
possible but re-doing the work.

Cracking is produced by using a hard varnish over an elastic
varnish, or by coating over paint which is only partly dry.

Wrinkles are caused by a too liberal use of varnish in the
under coat and are not often foi-med upon painters' work, where
the tendency is usually to put on too little.

Much apparently inexplicable trouble arises from the fact
that varnish is thoughtlessly exposed to different temperatures
immediately before use. Varnish will turn out ropy and
curdling when it has been standing out in a cold outhouse,
and has been brought straight into a warm room and used.
It will look thin and poor if brought out of a hot stuffy
office and used straight away on a shop front on a cold or damp
day.

A good finish of varnishing is quite impossible upon a bad and
uneven surface, even if it has been filled up, because the fact of
there being a sixteenth part of an inch of filling in one place,
and an eighth in another, makes it certain that the amount of
gloss will vary in the finishing coat upon such unequally
composed surfaces.

The Use of Enamels. — The use of enamel paints is very
much akin to the use of varnishes ; precisely the same rules
apply. It is especially to be noted that all enamelling must be
done upon a hard and firm surface, and not upon the ordinary
oil paint grounds, if a successful result is desired. Great care is
necessary in working the stiles and graining of wood-work, so as
to avoid gathering and clogging, as enamels are less limpid, and
possess less flow than varnish, owing to the pigment present in
their composition. It should be remembered that any good
varnish added to ordinary dry pigment ground stiff in turpentine,
will make an enamel paint of good body and lustre.

The best white enamels in the market are those which dry
slowly and retain a high gloss. Quick-drying enamels are
subject to abrasion and rapid disintegration.

Enamelling upon slate is done in japanners' colour — viz.,
dry colours ground in turps and Japan gold size — and varnished
with a japanners' varnish, which will require stoving in a high
temperature in a specially constructed oven.

Patent knotting and dry powder colour make a reliable quick
enamel for odds and ends, where time is a consideration, but not

191 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

for large surfaces. Powder bronze in patent knotting makes a
good bronze paint for gas fittings and iron work. Japans are
chiefly used for metal work, but black Japan of a good brand is
capable of a high finish upon carriage and wood-work. Use upon
a quick dead black ground in the same way as varnish. A white
Japan has recently been placed upon the market, but the white
enamels referred to meet all the requirements of the house
painter.

Lacquers. — Lacquers, which are really a species of varnish,
are principally used by the house painter for the protection and
colouring of metallic surfaces, such as silver leaf, Dutch, and
other metals. Their use will be dealt with under Relievo
Decoration. Some of these lacquers are specially waterproof,
and withstand the action of acid and steam.

Brunswick black is an asphaltuin varnish used for iron fittings,
locks, and furniture. It is such a bad neighbour to oil paint
that Japan is to be preferred. Berlin black is a similar article ;
but it dries with a dead surface. It is useful for hinges, locks
and fittings, stoves and pipes.

Testing Varnishes. — Varnishes may be tested by spreading
them upon a piece of plate glass, and by using them upon a flat
white ground; the former method is the test for hardness,
drying, and tenacity, the latter for colour, fineness, body, and
flow.

One of the good qualities of varnish is that it should dry
throughout, and not skin over hard on the mere surface. Tliis
may be tested by using a small portion of varnish as if it were
gold size, putting it on rather freely, and, as soon as tacky,
gilding it. If it is a varnish that dries superficially first, it will
cause the gold to wrinkle in a few hours, and the greater this
wrinkling the more faulty the varnish is in this respect. This
is, however, by no means the most important point in a good
varnish, as some of the best have this fault, especially finishing
varnishes.

White Polished Enamel. — A very fine and desirable surface
may be obtained upon smooth show panels of light grounds by
enamel polishing. This is more akin to varnishing than painting,
and is accomplished in the following manner: — The work having
been painted in fairly quick colour, and with a presentable
surface, is coated with about six coats of colour made in the
following way : — Dry white lead is ground in turps, and tinted
with ordinary oil colours of very fine quality, such as are sold in
artists' tubes, to the desired tint ; this is thinned for use with
as much body carriage varnish as there is turpentine in the

VARNISH. 195

colour, and a coat is applied every second day; it should be laid
on freely with a soft wide flat hog-hair brush in tin. It should
then stand for a week to harden, when it can be felted down, as
described for varnishing, and polished in the same manner, but
using putty powder or whiting for the final rubbing instead of
rotten stone (which is apt to soil the surface). This takes a fine
hard polish without the necessity of varnishing.

The air-drying enamels made by Messrs. Mander Brothers for
metal work, cycles, and similar purposes are especially to be
recommended for any but large surface work, for which we
prefer colour under varnish.

Enamels. — Many excellent enamels have been invented since
the first edition of this book was written, and others have been
superseded. The use of them in place of a paint or varnish
finish has greatly increased, and the old idea that a better finish
could be obtained by varnishing has been exploded. Most of
them are made from zinc white and an oil varnish, but the
success of the better class of white enamels appears to be due to
the incorporation of the pigment at an early stage of manufac-
ture. Among the best known are : —

Mander's Olsina enamel, Ripolin, and Harland's snow-white,
which are made in both glossy and matt or flat. Others are
Satinette, Sisco, white Japan, Patinol (which is recommended
by the makers for tropical climates), Sanalene, and China gloss.

As is the case with washable distempers and proprietary
paints generally, each of these enamels have their own individu-
ality, and only lengthened practice and observation will enable
the painter to always select the best for his particular purpose.

An excellent enamel for front doOrs is not so suitable for
bedrooms, and a good bedroom enamel would not suit bath
insides or kitchens. For general internal work the first three
named have been thoroughly tested by the writer, and all are
good, work easily, stand well, and have a perfect gloss.

A most useful product of the enamel class is the composition
for black boards, prepared in a dozen colours by Ripolin. It is
hard and stands rough usage, and may be useful for many more
purposes than the one named.

196

CHAPTER XIII.

HERE doctors differ who shall
decide 1 The whole question of
the artistic legitimacy of purely
imitative graining and marbling
is now being discussed, as it has
been periodically discussed in
all ages. Twenty years ago the
authoritative answer was given
that it was inadmissible, a sham;
but again its utility has thrust
it to the front.
In order to arrive at a fairly correct judgment on the point,
let us first examine the question from the writer's pet stand-
point, that of rationalism or common sense, irrespective of the
personality of those who take sides on the matter.

What is Graining ? — First, what is graining 1 Is it an
attempt to deceive the observer 1 Second, what is the result?
Third, why is it done 1 Fourth, do these reasons commend
themselves to our common sense 1

The replies to these questions appear to be these : — Graining
is an attempt to represent the superficial appearance of some-

IMITATIVE PAINTING. 197

thing other than the material painted. It cannot deceive the
observer who has a knowledge of woods anymore than a painted
leaf can be mistaken for a real one. The utmost result in the
direction of imitative suggestion is that it conveys to the mind
the abstract idea of wood. It is used, artistically, because it
conveys this idea of material, in the same way that bronzing and
gilding convey the idea of metals, or that certain patterns con-
vey the idea suggested by their motifs, or that certain colours
convey the idea of strength. It is used commercially because,
owing to its broken colour surface, it is extremely serviceable
and little liable to show slight injury. Therefore, if the proper
limitations are observed, there appeal's to be no solid argument
against its use.

Limitations to Graining, &c. — The limitations that should
be observed may be set down as follows : —

Graining should only be used where it is usual to employ, and
desirable to suggest the employment of, wood constructionally ;
and marbling must be governed by similar laws. It should only
be used in cases where it is not expedient to employ the real
wood, but where the employment of the real wood would be
quite possible and rational. No more should be done than is
necessary to suggest the wood intended. It is evidently not
only vulgar, but also inartistic, to crowd into the work more
features than would be likely to occur in the natural wood.
The pi-actice of filling the graining with markings is akin to that
of third-rate actors, who, because of the cheapness of sham gems,
crowd themselves with more jewellery than would be worn by
the characters represented, and thus loudly proclaim the falsity
of their representations.

In this connection the words of Pope may be cited as particu-
larly apt : —

" First follow nature, and your judgment frame
From her just standard."

This view of the subject suggests many doubts as to the actual
importance of graining and marbling, and leads to the conclusion
that if these limitations are studied there are many other equally
good methods of obtaining the end aimed at. There is a great
deal more graining done than there is the slightest necessity
for, and much work is grained that would be better otherwise
treated.

The Condemnation of Graining. — • Before proceeding to
that part of the subject, however, it is well to see who are the
persons who have led the attack against imitative painting and
what thay have suggested in its place.

198 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

First, there are certain art critics and designers ; men whose
opinions on all art subjects are worthy of serious consideration ;
but who, not being thoroughly conversant with the commercial
or technical advantages of graining for low grade work, hastily
assume graining to be merely a sham. From a purely aesthetic
view, if it be granted that graining is an attempt to deceive, they
are quite correct in their denunciations. But they apparently
start with wrong premises, and they are unaware of the merely
utilitarian value of an irregularly broken colour surface.

Then there are members of the trade who decry graining
because they prefer to rush over a job more cheaply and quickly,
and do not want it to last too long. These persons even ad-
vocate one colour over everything ; no relief, no emphasised
construction by judicious tinting. They run down any and
everything that takes a little time to do properly. They wel-
comed with open arms the advent of Oscar Wilde's white draw-
ing-room, and thus made it an easy matter for every village
upholsterer to be a "decorator." Flat it all white, is their cry ;
no need to get it up to a good surface then. In the old trade
days of white and gold, there was a little good smooth enamelling
and polishing, but now creamy white flatting gives the craftsman
no chance to show his metal.

The Intentions of the Grainer. — In the next place, a few
personal remarks as to the real intent of the grainer and the
effect of graining upon those outside the trade will support the
statement that the practice is not an attempt to deceive ; that it
is intended as a conventional symbol rather than a portrayal.

When a man paints a flower, however well it is done, no one
takes it for a real flower, or looks upon the painter as a base
deceiver. The very same objections which are raised to grain-
ing, appear to be equally applicable to veneering, inlaying,
gilding, and enamelling, oxidising, galvanising, or plating, in
fact to any method of altering the appearance of a surface, if it
is assumed that it is done for the purpose of deception.

The aesthetic morality appears to depend entirely upon the
artistic intention.

There is a great deal of inconsistency among men who con-
demn graining as an imitation. One prominent denunciator of
the practice has designed tile papers for bath-rooms, which
appear equally open to condemnation ; others defend the use of
copper and silver articles gilt and lacquered, veneers, the fashion
of staining woods in any and every colour that is opposed to nature
and out of harmony with the material, as blue ash, metallic
green mahogany, and many other equally inconsistent practices.

IMITATIVE PAINTING. 199

When the writer was a little boy he remembers to have
always stopped and watched grainers at work outside of shops
and houses, with a great deal of interest, and very frequently
eluded pursuit and made his way into a fascinating workshop
near where he lived. It belonged to a clever old decorator who
painted banners, wrote signs, and enamelled and grained
furniture. But until he was apprenticed to the trade and heard
this kind of thing called oak, walnut, verd antico, rouge roi, &c,
it never once occurred to him that the work he had watched
with so much interest, was intended to deceive the eye and
represent real woods and marbles. He had always mentally
summed it up as a pretty and effective method of painting — a
conventional treatment (as we should call it), of which the
motif was wood.

This experience of his own, so well remembered, has led him
to question others, and to note the effect of graining on their
minds, and he has not yet made the acquaintance of the man
who is not fully aware of the existence of " graining," and who
knows it when he sees it ; nor has he found the victim of
delusion who has paid for graining believing it to be real "oak."

What to Imitate in Graining. — Following the logical result
of these conclusions there appears to be no reason why so slavish
an attempt should be made to imitate the actual markings of the
wood. If the suggestion of woodiness and the broken surface of
colour are retained, the actual markings leave scope for the
artistic faculties. It is the colour and texture, the light and
shade in the wood, that charm, and lacking these to a great
degree some substitute of equal interest might well be imported
into the work. There are some positions, of course, in which
such departure would involve too great a loss of dignity and
repose.

Positions Suitable for Graining. — There are occasions
when, failing actual marble or wood, a very near attempt at
imitation is required to give the necessaiy architectural force
and character.

In doors, external doors particularly, a fairly Dear representa-
tion of oak is more suitable and refined in suggestion than any
attempt to imitate porcelain or majolica, or to hide up the con-
structional lines by an unbroken enamel surface more suggestive
of china or earthenware than solid wood.

Again, take the case of Corinthian columns in a large hall of
classic architecture. No treatment will give the requisite fitness,
stability, and dignity to those columns that could be obtained
by the suggestive use of marble. Of course the use of actual

200

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

marble is preferable if it cm be used solidly. It is, however,
very questionable if the use of slabs of marble placed edge to
edge round an iron column to form an apparently square and
solid pier is not more objectionable from a really artistic point
of view than suggestive marbling, and is a double sham.

Some of the proper places upon which to use gi-aining and
marbling will at once occur to the reader ; situations in which a
suggestion, more or less conventional, of wood or stone is called
for by the architectural arrangement existing. They may be
safely left to the selection of the decorator, but it is well to point
out that not only should the article itself be suitable, but the
design and detail of it also. Take the case of an iron mantel.
It may be either designed to appear as carved and moulded
wood- work, as cast iron, or as stone or marble, according to the
character of the detail and ornament. In this connection a little
architectural knowledge and an acquaintance with builders'
work will assist the judgment. The mouldings are generally a
good guide in the matter.

Limits as to Imitation. — Another point of importance as a
matter of taste is to know how far to give imitative quality to
the work. This must be governed by the circumstances of each
case, and the student is recommended to incline to conventional
rather than imitative work ; to give some definite amount of
originality and design to the details, and to lean towards sim-
plicity and regularity. If a close adhesion to nature appears desir-
able and is attempted, it must be justified by really good work.
It is better to execute a careful and simple stipple suggestive of
wood, good in colour, than to perpetrate a poor imitation of the
finest specimen of natural wood procurable.

The painting of a flower naturally, must be superlatively well
done to pass muster, which is much less than to give pleasure ; it
is the same with grained work or marbling.

The more frequently a flower is repeated, the less natural
should it be in design, and inasmuch as every grainer, by mere
force of character, repeats himself in his work, the same dictum
may be well applied to graining.

The treatment of graining as a sketch or suggestion of wood,
rather than as an attempt to represent actual wood, gives a wide
field for inventiveness and resource, and enables the less talented
to be contented to do well what is within their power and
capability.

Every one of the various processes, as combing, stippling,
flogging, mottling, overgraining, and veining, can be utilised
either separately or in combination, to obtain simple and inter-

IMITATIVE PAINTING. 201

esting wood-like effects, without claiming to represent particular
wood.

As illustrations of the thoughtless manner in which graining
is often used, attention may be called to the fact that cast-iron
rain-water pipes are frequently grained ; skirtings and bases are
sometimes grained when occurring beneath a marbled wall, and
baths are often marbled inside and grained on the outside, or
marbled one colour inside and another colour outside. This is
painting about as remotely removed from art as is possible.

Varied Methods of Graining. — The methods and processes
adopted by grainers for the production of the grain, curl, mottle,
and other effects that go to make up the appearance of a wood,
vary much in different parts of the country and in different
schools of graining. These differences are the result of various
men working out their own ideas by means of their own devis-
ing. Some of them are highly ingenious. It is not within the
scope of this work to explain minutely the modus operandi of
graining each particular wood or marble, but the following two
chapters will deal briefly with the various woods and stones
usually imitated, and the colours and tools which will be found
to represent them in the simplest manner.

20:

CHAPTER XIV.

ItAINING, or painting in imitation

of woods, must in all cases be done

upon a good foundation devoid of

absorbent properties, unless we

include in tbe term the processes

used in improving or adding to

the grain of wood. The improving

of wood is produced by the same

processes as here described for

graining. Improving is properly

included in the term staining.

The various coats of paint

necessary to produce the requisite grounds are fully described

in the chapter upon Plain painting. This ground must be

perfectly smooth, hard, and solid.

The woods most usually attempted by the decorator are : —

Graining Oak. — First and most universally, probably in larger

quantities than all the other woods added together English Oak.

It is most frequently done in the following manner: — A ground

is prepared to match in tint the lightest part of the wood it is

GRAINING.

203

intended to imitate. For medium oak a mixture of yellow ochre
and white lead, with a touch of raw English Umber, will produce
a suitable colour. It may be remarked en passant that the
prevalent fault of modern grainers is to use too bright and
glaring a ground colour for all woods. For dark oak grounds
more Umber and a little Venetian red may be added. For rich
mellow oak, burnt Umber and burnt Sienna with ochre and no
white can be used. For green heart timber or new oak, white,
raw Umber and a little black will make a good ground. The
ground must not err on the side of lightness or it will not keep
its place well in the finished work, but should be rather on the
deep and sombre side, and rather cool than hot in tone.

When the ground colour is dry and hard, a graining colour of
oil made from burnt Umber, to which a little raw Sienna or black
may be added, for light and deep woods respectively, is scumbled

Fig 59.— Flogger.

Fig GO — Steel graining comb.

over the work and laid off regularly, and to a depth of colour
representing the average appearance of the wood that is being
matched, a little terebine or sugar of lead is added to the colour
as driers, and the proportion of thinners should be about two-
fifths turpentine to three-fifths boiled linseed oil, or rather more

204

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

turpentine for internal work. The graining colour is now
brushed out in streaks, with a thin straight-haired brush known
as a " fiogger" (Fig. 59), and combed with steel graining combs
(Fig. 60), varied sometimes by the use of combs made from
leather, gutta-percha, and other materials. The degree of
combing will be regulated by the appearance aimed at by the
grainer ; sometimes the fiogger is used without the comb, and
vice versd.

The prominent little light markings known as " clashes " or
" champs " are then put in, either with a horn thumb piece or with

61.

-Hog-hair overgrainer, in tin.

Bxdger softener.

the thumb nail. The horn or nail is covered with a piece of soft
rag, to allow of it cleanly wiping out the marks without leaving
hard edges. The spaces between these marks are then mottled
to show the undulations of the grain, and the shadows that lie
side by side with the light markings, and any little touches or
softening necessary to complete the likeness to the wood are
put in. The whole is then allowed to dry and when dry it is

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GRAINING.

205

*' overgrained." The overgraining is done with colour ground
in water.

A little blue black, with, or without burnt umber is recom-
mended. This overgraining is slightly tempered with stale beer
or milk to bind the colour, and thinned with water to a mere
wash. It is then laid on with one. or other of the overgrainers
(Fig 61), and softened with a badger hair softener (Fig. 62), so
as to represent the general light and shade, in mass, of the
wood. Gum, glycerine, sugar, and fuller's earth are used as
substitutes for the beer. Puller's earth is favoured by the
writer as the least likely to be detrimental to the appearance of
the varnish.

Fig. 63. — Hog-hair mottler.

Sometimes the work is varnished prior to overgraining, and
again afterwards, and often two coats of overgraining are used
to enhance the depth and translucency of the work. In any
case, the work must be varnished after the final overgraining.
Deeper markings are sometimes added during the graining
process by the use of a writer's sable and a fitch.

Rain water, melted beeswax, whiting, yellow soap jelly (made
by dissolving soap in boiling water), lime and other materials are
added to the oil graining colour to give body, or to "jellify " the
colour without altering the shade. The object is to cause the
colour to stay in its place and not to run, spread, or too readily
smear. These practices are to be strongly condemned as they

206

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

destroy the hardness and durability of the work and affect the
varnish prejudicially. A little slow-drying varnish will have
the same effect on the colour, but unfortunately also makes it
"sticky" in working. Megilp is good, but expensive, for the
same purpose. They may all be dispensed with if proper care is
exercised to make the colour dry to suit the rate of working, so
that it sets as soon as the graining is done.

Fig. 64. — Oak combing roller.

There are a number of more or less mechanical appliances used
for the purpose of imitating the grain of oak. The effect of
combing is very well obtained by the use of the patent combing
rollers (Fig. 64). These rollers contain a number of notched
zinc discs which revolve irregularly and disperse a number of

Fig 65. — Patent oak graiu finisher.

streaks upon the work, which are more like the actual open
grain of the wood than the marks produced by steel graining
combs. They are used with distemper colour supplied from an
overgrainer as illustrated in Fig. 64.

Fig. 66. — Bellamy's graining roller.

The patent finisher (Fig. 65) is also used for putting on the
final fine touches, and is useful for the purpose. Bellamy's

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To face p. 206.]

GRAINING.

207

graining rollers (Fig. 66) are open to the objection that they re-
peat the pattern regularly, the pattern itself being uninteresting.

Various transfer papers are also used for impressing the grain
upon the wet colour, with more or less success.

Oak graining used frequently to be done in water medium, but
it is not olten the case now, unless for japanners' work. The
work done in distemper has a very clean and sharp appearance.
Proceed as follows : — Ground in the ordinary way. The graining
colour is made from burnt Umber ground in water and stale
beer, and a little spirits of wine, rum, or whisky added in the
proportion of a teaspoonful to half a pint of colour. Lay on
the colour with a full overgrainer or mottler, or a piece of
sponge, and flog level. Comb in the ordinary way or drag with
the flogger. Take out the light clashes with a wet leather drawn
over the finger or thumb nail tip, and put in deep veins with a
pencil and Umber. If the colour sets too quickly, add a few drops
of glycerine or a little sugar or treacle. Give a coat of thin var-
nish before proceeding to overgrain, or overgrain in oil colour.

Fig. 67.— Thick hog-hair mottler.

Pollard Oak. — Heart and sap of oak and pollard oak are
worked in a similar manner to ordinary oak, but usually in oil.
The student is strongly advised in all graining to copy nature as
closely as_ possible, and work directly therefrom until he is able
to fairly imitate the real wood, after which he may launch out
on his own lines with a chance of success.

Mahogany. — Mahogany is the wood which is next in import-
ance as it is largely imitated for office and shop work. This is
not such a difficult wood to grain as oak. It is usually grained
in water colour. The ground is composed of Yenetian red and
burnt Sienna with a little ochre. The graining colour is a mix-
ture of brown or mahogany lake, and Vandyke brown or
mahogany lake, and blue black. The tools used are a thick hog-
hair mottler (Fig. 67), a sponge, a short camel-hair mottler (Fig.
68), and a badger softener.

The colour is laid on with a distemper tool and manipulated
into form with a sponge and the mottlers, then softened and

208

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

lightly flogged with the side of the badger softener to produce
the fine grain or texture of the wood. It is then allowed to dry
and afterwards overgrained with a thin fitch-hair overgrainer

Camel-hair mottler.

and Vandyke brown in water. Mahogany is also grained in
oil upon a" ground which has been previously stippled with a
wash of Vandyke brown in water.

Walnut.— Walnut is another popular wood, and is grained
both in water colour and oil, and also in a combination of both.
For the ground, use yellow ochre and burnt Sienna, with Umber
if for American walnut. For graining, burnt Umber and Van-
dyke brown, or burnt Sienna and blue black. First, lay in the

Fig 69. — Pencil overgrainer.

ground with the graining colour used sparely, and with a wet
leather wipe out the lights and mottle in a rough representation
of the disposition of the light and dark parts of the wood.
Allow to dry and then put in with a fitch and an overgrainer, the
main markings, knots, &c, and work them up with the badger
softener and a piece of soft rag ; put in finer veinings with the
sable pencil and blend together frequently. Allow to dry, and,
finally, overgrain with a pencil or separated overgrainer (Fig. 69)
and a camel-hair mottler. Oil colour may be used for the middle
process and water colour for the other two.

GRAINING. 209

Walnut wood and other rare and valuable woods lose in effect
if used in a wholesale and reckless manner which is inconsistent
with the probabilities of the use of the same woods in construction.
Pitch Pine. — Pitch pine is one of the easiest of woods to
imitate. It is best grained in oil. The ground should be from
ochre, chrome, and a little Venetian red. The graining colour
of burnt Sienna, raw Sienna, and a little raw Umber. The large
heart markings are put in with a fitch or veining tool, and the
outer and smaller ones with a pencil overgrainer, and softened
with a badger softener. The flake of this wood can be exactly
imitated by the merest tyro, with the badger, if the pencilling is
correctly done. By keeping the pencilling open so that the
softener will not run the lines into each other too quickly they
may be driven into a remarkable similarity to the annular rings
of the wood.

Rosewood. — Rosewood is a very richly-coloured and orna-
mental wood, and is not difficult to imitate. The ground is made
from Venetian red and a little ochre. The graining colour is
Vandyke brown and crimson lake or madder brown, with over-
graining of ivory black and blue black. Rose pink is used by
some grainers ; but it is not permanent. The first process is to
lay in, with a sponge, a rough modelled effect of the general
disposition of the grain. This is then pencilled up by the use
of sables and overgrainers, — a thin flat fitch-hair ovei'grainer,
separated by a pocket comb, is the best for the purpose, as it
gives irregular lines — but little softening is required if the over-
graining is carefully done. The grain of the wood must be
seen to be understood, as it is very intricate, varied, and without
much apparent principle in its grouping and direction.

Maple. — Maple comes next in the frequency with which it is
used by the grainer as a model. Bird's-eye grey maple is the
most beautiful and popular form of this wood. It is grained
upon a white ground, usually in water colour. The graining
colour is made from raw Sienna, burnt Sienna, and blue black.
A mixture of these, with the blue black predominating, is first
mottled over the ground, softened crosswise, and allowed to dry.
This mottling is well done by taking a wet chamois leather, and,
after the panel has been scumbled in with colour and a dis-
temper tool, taking the leather in both hands, twisting it
slightly, ropewise, and striking the panel with it, using it as
a skipping rope, holding by the extreme corners. This produces
irregular light markings having a common relation to each
other and following a curved disposition. These are then
softened from the centre outwards in a horizontal direction. A
few high lights are then taken out with a pointed hog-hair tool,

210 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

and a mixture of warmer colour used to put in the eyes or dots.
The position of these in relation to the mottle will be seen in
the natural wood. When all is dry, the fine markings of grain
are added with a pencil or crayon, using a rather redder tint for
them, and working from the centre or heart and round the eyes

Tig. 70. — Improved round hog-hair maple eye tools.

Fig. 71. — Camel-hair maple dotters.

unequally. Finally, the work is varnished and glazed with a
pure wash of blue black overgraining, which is mottled to give
the silky light and shade which gives the peculiar character to this
wood. The student should notice that the shadows are curvi-
linear, not angular, as in some other woods. Use a pale varnish.

Satin Wood.- — Satin wood and birch may be imitated by a
similar process to that given for mahogany, using the real wood
as a guide for form and colour. Ground for both, a yellowish
white ; graining colour, raw Sienna, burnt Sienna, and raw
Umber, overgrained with blue black or ivory black.

Ash. — Ash is grained upon a yellowish drab ground. The pro-
cess used is similar to that for pitch pine, but the work is finer
and more curly in character. Colours as satin wood for graining.
Overgrain in water with Vandyke brown and blue black. Hun-
garian ash is the same in colour, but much more free, curling, and
short in the grain. American ash is straight and simple in grain.

Pollard oak, burl ash or pollard ash, root of walnut, and root
of birch are all similar in character and colour to their respective
woods, but richer and deeper, and full of intricate workings, knots,
and whorls. They should be worked from real wood patterns.

Fancy Woods. — Olive, tulip, and other fancy woods can all be
represented truly by the use of the tools and processes already
referred to, the chief point being to carefully copy the colour.

The commoner woods, as pine, spruce, cypress, <fec, are not much
imitated, the grain being very poor and uninteresting. They
can be produced by the same methods as the more beautifully
grained woods. The close and even-grained woods, as cherry,
pear tree, box, and a host of others, are little used. They are

GRAINING. 211

often, however, very closely imitated in plain colour by the
decorator, and there is no reason why they should not be made
more use off, as a mere flogging and finishing with the badger
would give a fair representation with very little labour. Cherry
is a particularly effective wood. Some of our garden trees, as
the acacia, laburnum, chestnut, and yew, also give fine colour and
grain, which is not taken due advantage of by modern grainers.

General Hints. — As a general principle, it will be observed
that the ground of a wood must be rather rich and warm; the
graining less so ; and the overgraining still less, usually par-
taking of a considerable amount of grey tones. The observance
of this rule gives relative depth and position.

Though special tools are provided by the tool makers for
almost every process, the grainer constantly finds that he can
advantageously devise many rough and ready ones of his own
that will do what he requires in a peculiarly apt and com-
mendable manner.

For inlaying and ornamenting, the student is referred to the
chapter on Staining. The processes there given may be used
for graining with equal success.

Transfer Graining. — The practice of graining by transfer
papers, at one time only very imperfectly attempted has, by the
aid of photographic engraving, been made of considerable assist-
ance to small employers who have neither the skill to grain or
marble nor the scope for the employment of a competent grainer.

Panels of good figuring are first photographed, and printing
blocks are engraved from them. These are next printed in oils
upon absorbent or "blotting" paper and allowed to dry. The
paper is sold in sheets or rolls to the painter, who cuts them
into the sizes required for the different parts of the work. To
use them he proceeds as follows : —

The work having been gi-ounded and the graining colour
rubbed in in the usual way, the panel may be combed or not at
discretion ; the graining paper is then laid upon the panel and
lightly rolled or pressed evenly into place with a brush. It at
once absorbs the colour, or blots it off, in all parts where the non-
absorbent printing has not interfered with the absorbent quality
of the paper.

The transfer is then removed and the panel is complete except
for a light softening with a badger softener, and, at discretion, a
little overgraining.

The method is applicable to either oil or water-colour graining
and the papers may be used again and again as long as any
absorbency remains and the colour has not clogged them.

212

CHAPTER XV.

BgBHtHBWJTlLlllllllllllil.UIIIMlllllil

W5?

MARBB1NG

flE imitation of marbles differs materi-
ally from that of woods inasmuch as,
in the case of woods, it is usual to do
the greater part of the work in glazes
applied in water colour; whereas
the nature of marbles demands a more
solid and opaque treatment. Con-
sequently, marbling is almost entirely
executed in paint and in body colours.
Glazes are used to add depth and
translucency where required, and water colour is sometimes
used lor the sake of its rapid drying.

White Marble. — The simplest marble to execute, and at the
same time one of the most difficult to imitate faithfully, is white
or Sicilian marble. The ground required for this marble is a
dead white. When the gi'ound is dry and hard, a thin coat of
zinc white in oil is rubbed over it, and the veins are put in with
a crayon ; a warm grey crayon is used for the inner veinings, and
a soft black lead pencil or black conte crayon for the more pro-
minent ones. The spaces between the veins are then tinted
slightly with grey and green, and a few touches of yellowish
grey, all very sparingly used, and the whole softened with the
hog- hair softener.

MARBLING. 213

Sienna Marble. — Sienna marble is next in importance, and
is much used for columns, pilasters, and staircase walls. The
same ground is used as for the white marble, and while this is
still wet it is irregularly painted with two or three tints of
yellowish cast, made from white and raw Sienna. The veins
are then put in either with a black crayon or charcoal, or a soft
lead pencil, and softened into the ground. When this is dry,
additional shadows, tfcc., are glazed in in raw Sienna and burnt
Sienna, and the veins are emphasised with a little blue or lake.
Over all a few white veins or spots are run, and a few lights put
on in the interstices between the dark veins.

Italian Pink Marble. — Italian pink marble is used in place
of Sienna, and is about the same depth of tone, but pink, as its
name implies. The ground required is the same as above. The
ground is scumbled over with pink, made from ochre and
Venetian red, and ochre and vermilion, and shaded in with
greyer tones. The veins are put in with purplish red, and the
whole blended and softened with the hog-hair softener. After
all, a few white veins crossing the deep ones, and a few blotches
of white, with here and there rose pink glazings, are added.

Black and Gold Marble. — Black and gold is a popular
marble for skirtings, and string courses, chimney pieces, &c.
The ground is black. The larger veins are a gold colour made
from ochre and red, and may be varied in colour indefinitely ;
they are put upon a dry ground with a pencil and oil colour.
Very fine distinct white and yellow veins run from the main
ones, splitting up the black ground into fragments. The black
spaces are then shaded and lightened by the use of grey tints.
A few particles of gold leaf or metal put into or upon the gold
colour veins improve the effect. Another method is to work in
Sienna upon a white ground, and badger and blend various golden
red and yellow hues together, to allow this to dry and then
to paint in the intervening spaces with black and grey. The
peculiarity of this marble is the intricate ramifications of the
veining.

Grey Marbles. — Grey marble, dove, or slate are all worked
from a white ground. A feather is used to put in the veins;
by this method the colour is thoroughly and irregularly spread
over the whole ground. All the veins must run in one general
direction, and specks and dots must be added in brighter tints,
with shells and fossils in lighter greys and white.

Red Marbles. — Red Derbyshire, porphry, and Irish red are
all marbled off a bright red ground. Venetian red and vermilion
with a little chrome are used in varying degrees of depth. The

214

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

marbling is done by first glazing over the ground a coat of
crimson lake, and then breaking it up by the use of a feather
and turpentine with a little black. White or grey dots and
veins are added in very thin white.

Green Marbles. — Egyptian green and verd antique are green
marbles which are worked upon a black ground. Chrome and
Prussian blue, and white make the marbling colours, varying
degrees of colour being used. Fossil spots and rings are added
in white, cream, &c, while the innermost ground shows spaces
of black.

Lapis Lazuli. — Lapis lazuli is used for special little
medallions, &c. It is obtained from a pale blue ground ; ultra-
marine and gold leaf are used for the marbling and veining
respectively. The veins are very fine and broken.

Graniting. — Red and grey granite may be imitated by
spotting a ground of either colour with white, red, grey, and
black The dotting may be done with a graniting brush.

Fig. 72. — Veining fitch.

Fig. 73. — Hog-hair softener.

Devonshire Marble. — Devonshire marble is a conglomerate
mass of ochres, reds, and browns, with white markings. It is
represented upon a terra cotta ground by the use of feathers,
sponge, and rags ; the veins being put in with a veining fitch
(Fig. 72) or pencil.

Alabaster.— Alabaster is a favourite marble for church deco-
ration. It may be wrought upon a creamy white ground in
light red, and white and lake. It is a soft stone with undulating
veins, and is readily imitated.

St. Anne's Marble.— St. Anne's and other black and white

MARBLING. 2l5

marbles are worked upon black grounds with white markings.
Grey is also used for the middle tints.

In the imitation of all marbles great attention must be paid
to the shape of the masses, and the direction of the veins. The
character and distinctiveness of all marbles rest principally on
the form that these take, and not on their scale or size.

Colour is also important, although every class of marble will
present samples widely different in colour, as well as in scale.

Many of the most mysterious and beautiful effects seen in
marbles may be imitated by the use of turpentine, which, when
sprinkled on the wet colour, opens it out in fantastically shaped
forms of great beauty, and renders that translucent appearance
common to the richer marbles.

Amber and other very translucent substances may be imitated
successfully by the methods common to marbling. Repeated
varnishing and re-glazing is the means adopted to produce great
depth and translucency.

Many exquisite suggestions in, and revelations of colour
may be obtained by the examination of fragments of rough
marble and mineral ogical specimens under the microscope.

The component colouring matters in marbles are seldom seen
by the ordinary observer, who only receives a general impression
of the apparent colour. This superficial colour may be much
more truly reproduced after studying the composition of the
marbles under the microscope, when the particles of coloured
matter, which go to produce the effect seen, may be utilised in
obtaining the required superficial effect.

CHAPTER XVI.

^0^*W*

GILDING

1LDING may be broadly under-
stood to mean the application of
metals in thin leaf form to de-
corative purposes, by the use of
mordants and vehicles. Origin-
ally limited in scope to the
application of gold leaf, it has
now become a general practice
to substitute many kinds of
metal, both in imitation of gold,
and in order to produce other
metallic colour effects. This is
not altogether to be regretted,
as the use of the more precious
metal in such a form that it is
ultimately totally lost to the community is a deplorable waste,
which is not entirely defensible ; especially as it draws a large
quantity of the metal away from its more legitimate use in the
arts of the goldsmith and metal worker. The small proportion
used for really high-class decorative work, as in illuminating and
permanent decorative schemes and pictures, is in propoi-tion less
than one percent, of the enormous amount used for commercial
advertising, and the vulgar overlaying of plaster and composition
picture frames.

GILDING. 217

The various metals in common use for gilding in the leaf
form are : —

Platinum.

Gold, in many degrees of fineness and tint.
Alloys of gold and copper.
,, ,, ,, silver.

Alloys of copper and silver.

tin.
Silver.
Aluminium.

The alloys are known as t: metal d'or," Dutch metal, ducat
gold, gold metal, &c. The commonest and cheapest forms are
thick and brittle in quality, while the better degrees of gold leaf
are beaten to extreme thinness, the malleability and ductility of
the metal allowing as many as 2,500 leaves, 3 inches by 3J inches,
to be obtained from 1 ounce of fine gold, or to put it in another
way, the total thickness of 300,000 leaves is less than 1
inch. Gold leaf is usually put up in books of 25 leaves, each
leaf being 3^ inches square. It is sold by the 1,000 leaves — viz.,
40 books. Silver leaf is usually 4 inches by 4 inches, and metals
are made in both sizes, and larger.

Gold leaf is termed white, pale, medium, deep, extra deep,
citron, red, &c, according to its colour. Gold is readily damaged
in the book by handling, damp, and shaking ; for this reason
good English gold leaf of recent make should be selected. The
best work cannot be produced by any other. It should be kept
in a dry place, and may, with advantage, be placed upon a hot
plate, or in the cool oven prior to using. The red powder on
gold books is put on to prevent the gold sticking to the leaves
of the book ; it is "bole," a red earth from Armenia, of peculiarly
flaky, smooth, and soft texture. A red French clay is some-
times used for the same purpose.

Methods of Gilding. — The various methods of applying gold
leaf used by painters and decorators are termed: —

Oil gilding,
Japan gilding, and
Water gilding.

These methods vary in detail upon different kinds of grounds.
Oil or Japan gilding is used upon painted surfaces, or grounds
that have been strongly sized or varnished.

Oil Gold Size. — Oil gold size is a preparation of " fat linseed-
oil " — viz., oil which has, by exposure to the atmosphere, lost its
power of absorbing oxygen, and become viscid and less hard
drying ; it may be prepared by exposing linseed oil to the air

218 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

and light in a wide, open-mouthed vessel for about six months.
To make it usable and give it a little body and colour, ochre is
ground up in about one-third of the whole quantity and added
to the whole bulk ; a little driers, usually litharge, is also re-
quired, and, if too thick for use, it must be thinned to proper
consistency with boiled oil. Colour makers sell ready-prepared
oil gold size, that of Messrs. Mander being the best we have
used. A small quantity of good varnish, one-part to twenty,
added to gold size, gives it hardness and additional lustre. Good
oil size will be ready to l'eceive the gold at any time between
twenty-four hours and a week from the moment of using it; and
the longer it holds its tackiness the better is the result, provided
that the size ultimately dries firm and hard, like a piece of gold-
beater's skin.

Japanners' Gold Size is a kind of quick varnish drying in
about half-an-hour to two hours, and is ready for gilding as soon
as sufficiently dry. It must be gilded upon at once when this is
the case, as the t; tack " soon changes into a hard varnish surface.

Gilding can be done with varnish, but the excessive gloss
gives a blackish look to the gold, and as the varnish hardens it
loses its hold of the metal, which will then wash off with soap
and water. Notwithstanding this fact, it is often used in largo
proportions added to gold size by certain decorators, who admiro
the additional gloss, but do not trouble about durability.

Fig. 1\. — Agate burnisher.

Many special sizes of a varnish nature are made for sign
writers. Messrs. Harland's make special size for carriage and
sign work to dry at various rates, in from four to twenty-four
hours, all of which are better for use under varnish, or stoved
enamel, than oil gold size ; but for work that is to be left unpro-
tected, the ordinary fat oil gold size is more desirable, and gives
a rich mellowness to the gold without undue sheen.

Water Gold Sizes vary in their nature for different purposes.
For gilding on prepared wood, papier mache, plaster, or com-
position, as for picture frames, two kinds are used, burnish
and matt gold size.

Burnish Gold Size is made from pipeclay and black lead, with
a small quantity of mutton suet added in the grinding. It can
be purchased ready made, and is used with ordinary parchment

GILDING.

219

or gelatine size as a binding medium. Gilding on this size will
take a good polish, or burnish with an agate burnisher (Fig. 74).

Matt Gold Size. — Matt size is for gold which is required to
have a matt or dead surface, and is made from pipeclay,
Armenian bole, and other materials. It can be purchased ready
for mixing with the clear parchment or jelly size.

Isinglass Gold Size. — Gilding upon glass is done with isin-
glass size. Take a pinch of best Russian isinglass, put it into a
pint of water, and stand the whole in a covered jar in the oven
for a few hours ; when dissolved or cooked add a ^ pint of spirits
of wine (not methylated), and strain or filter through white filter
paper. The spirits of wine removes the solid or waste portion
of the isinglass, and also serves to counteract grease on the glass,
or in the hairs of the brushes used ; its action is similar to that
of wine in milk.

Fig. 75. —Gilder's cushion.

Clear Size for Gold. — Gold is often clear sized to improve its
colour and prevent blooming. This size, as well as that used for
matt and burnish work, is best prepared from finest gelatine, or
from boiled parchment cuttings.

Tools for Laying Gold. — The operation of gilding is the
same, whatever process is used, in as far as laying the gold is
concerned. The best and general method is by means of a
cushion and tip. The cushion is a small board (Fig. 75) about
8 by 5 inches, covered with flannel, and over this a tightly
stretched chamois leather. A draught screen of parchment is
fitted round one half of it ; this is to prevent the wind removing

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

the gold from the cushion. It has a thumb strap beneath, and
loops for the knife, &c, and is held like a palette on the left hand.
The other tools required for the laying are a gilder's knife (Fig.
76), and a tip (Fig. 77).

HI §

Fig. 76. --Gilders' knives.

J11

Fig. 77. — Gilder's tip.

The knife is a long flexible blade of equal breadth throughout
its length. The tip is a flat brush made by setting a row of
hairs, either camel or badger's, between two pieces of card. The
fingers of the left hand hold the tip and knife alternately when
either is not being used by the right hand. Dabbers and camel-
hair brushes, and mops, are required to press the gold down in its
place, and remove superfluous scraps.

Laying Gold Leaf. — The size being ready to receive the
gold, about a dozen leaves are put in a heap in the back part of
the cushion ; then the cushion is taken in the left hand and the
knife in the right.

ABCDE
GHIJKlt
(DHOPQ
RSTUV,

Plate 20.— ORIGINAL ALPHABET, MODERN.
To face p. 220.]

GILDING. 221

The gold is taken from the book by merely opening each leaf
and o-ently blowing the gold out on the cushion. With the knife
a leaf of gold is taken to the front of the cushion, laid squarely,
and deftly blown out flat, cut to any size required by a sharp
jerking, saw-like movement of the knife not like ordinary cutting;
the knife is then transferred to the left hand, and the tip to the
rioht ; the gold is then taken up by the tip and laid upon the
work. The whole process is extremely simple after practice.
Breathing must be carried on gently through the nostrils, so as
not to disarrange the gold. When blowing a leaf flat, aim a
smart jet of air right into the centre of the leaf, sudden and
short. When cutting, lay the edge of the knife, which must
not be keen, on the gold leaf firmly, give a little jerk, lift it
up, and you will find the gold separated. Take care not to cut
the leather of the cushion. The knife must not be sharp enough
to do so. If the gold does not at once adhere to the tip, pass
the same lightly over the hair or beard to slightly grease it ;
this also sets up a magnetic action which assists to hold the gold.
It must not adhere too firmly to the tip, or the gold will tear in
transferring itself to the gold size. Always allow each leaf to
lap |- inch in laying, to secure a good join. Use whole leaves
wherever possible, and fault up every hole and crevice before
dabbing down. Well press down all joins, or there will be a
slight gap apparent at the junction.

In gilding a plain surface, hammer well down with a firm touch
and a good cotton wool pad before skewing off, and then skew
with a soft new stencil tool, using a circular motion, and polish
with a soft piece of cotton wool. Laying gold upon ordinary
oil or Japan gold size is sometimes done by a process of
transferring. This process is economical and useful for outside
work, or for etched and partial gilt work. To accomplish the
process, the gold must be what is known as transfer gold— viz.,
gold leaf which has been put upon tissue paper. Sheets of thin
tissue paper are cut into convenient sizes and slightly waxed
with a tablet of white wax. When pressed against the gold leaf
in the book, the leaf adheres to these waxed sheets and is from
them in turn transferred to the work. The waxed sheets being
slightly adhesive, only those portions of the leaf that are in con-
tact with the gold size leave the tissue sheet, and so there is no
waste. The tissue being somewhat transparent the operator can
see exactly what gold is still left upon the tissue, and utilise
every portion of it for the work in hand ; he can also see when
the gold size has not been covered with the gold. Gold can be
transferred to the tissue leaves without the necessity of waxing

222 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

them, by merely interleaving the gold book with tissue and
putting the book into a copying-press and well pressing ; a heavy
mangle or a joiner's bench vice will also do if the gold is put
carefully between boards so that it cannot get shifted.

The exceptions to these two methods of laying the gold are
fanciful and individual, the most general being what is termed
"laying from the book." When gilding a large flat surface, the
gold leaf can be laid direct from the book and much time saved
thereby, by the use of a long-haired tip which can take up a leaf
at a time without the necessity of cutting. The odd spaces and
small bits are afterwards filled from the cushion in the usual
manner. Another method is to dispense with the tip, and by
taking the book in the left hand, and opening it with the right
to turn the leaves straight on to the work. This is a great sav-
ing of time for large letters out of doors or for large fiat surfaces
of oil size gilding, but it requires some dexterity to be sure and
economical.

All gilding for interior decoration, and all out-door gilding
that can be conveniently left long enough before gilding, should
be done in oil gold size. The exceptions are, when time is an
object of importance, or where the work is fine and intricate, as
in small lettering, &c.

To Prevent Gold Sticking to Ground. — The ground for
gold sizing must be free from any tackiness, hard, dry, and
impervious. If it is not so it must be coated with some prepara-
tion to prevent the gold sticking where it is not required. The
white of an egg beaten up with a little water, termed "glaire," is
the best prepai'ation upon varnished or enamelled work. (The
white of one egg to 4 ounces of water is sufficiently strong.)
Upon ordinary painted work, a good rubbing with a pounce bag
— that is, a small calico bag filled with fine sifted whiting — will
suffice. A little size and water is also effective, and if a little
whiting is added to it, it is still more so. White of egg must
not be used too strong, never more than two-thirds water to one-
third egg. This is the least detrimental to the lustre of the gold.
Ordinary painted work that has to be partly gilt and then
varnished, may lie prepared by rubbing with a piece of very fine
glass paper and some dry whiting. Whiting preparations have
a tendency to cause the gold size to run.

The gold size must be laid evenly and sparely. If laid too
heavily it will crinkle up after the gilding has been done. It is
sometimes necessary to add colour to the gold size in decoi'ative
work, so as to see better where the size is put on level, &c. Tube
colours may be used for this purpose, and they should always

GILDING. 223

approximate to the colour of gold as nearly as possible, as the
gold leaf is full of innumerable small holes, and the colour used
in the size has an effect upon the appearance of the gold when
laid. Chrome, burnt Sienna, vermilion, or ochre are suitable
colours.

Gold size should never be gilded Unless quite ready. The
size should be just tacky enough to hold the gold leaf, but
never wet enough to smear or move if rubbed with the finger
tip. Gold laid upon too wet size will turn black and lustreless.
The precise condition is ascertained by the application of the
clean finger tip, and practice will enable the operator to judge
very accurately.

Turpentine should not be used as a thinner in gold size,
because it leaves behind it, after evaporation, a resinous oil,
which never properly hardens. A little boiled oil is the best
thinner. Japanners' gold size may be thinned with a little
turpentine if both are heated to boiling point together.

Oil gilding should always be well washed down with clean
water and a soft sponge, and then sized with clean gelatine size ;
this washing hardens the oil, and the size protects and preserves
the gold and gives it a more uniform lustre, in place of the
broken metallic brilliance it has as the result of its beating.
Before washing, it should be carefully pressed down with cotton
wool, all faults made good, and the whole dusted off with cotton
wool or a camel-hair dabber.

In gilding enriched and moulded surfaces, the gold will some-
times require double laying, in order to reach the interstices of
the work.

All waste gold, known to the gilder as "skew," should be
saved and used for dusting into the carved portions, and when
these are dusted out, the " skew " should be carefully collected
in a tin canister for future use, or for disposal to the dealer
in old gold and silver, the "skew" being worth about £3 an
ounce if from good gold.

Burnish and. Matt Gilding. — Burnish and matt gilding are
much alike in method of procedure. They are principally used
for Rococo or Florentine enriched ornament, cornices, and picture
frames. The work is brought up to a good surface in size and
whiting, and then coated with five or six coats of the matt size or
burnish size, as the case requires, each coat being rubbed down
with very fine glass paper, and the size laid on with a camel-hair
brush and allowed to dry thoroughly between each coat. When
the ground has a sufficient number of coats to be perfectly solid,
the gold is laid with water only — viz., the size is well wetted

224 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

with water in a camel-hair brush, and the gold laid on the
water, which, as it dries, carries the gold on to the size coat
and fixes it there. The leaf must be laid immediately following
the water while it is yet " live ; " to accomplish this quickly,
the expert gilder uses the water brush with his right hand by
clenching it with the two little fingers in his fist at the same
time as he has the gold upon the tip held between the forefinger
and thumb of the same hand. The flowing water catches the
gold from the tip, and spreads it out smoothly on the surface
of the water in the moment or two between the application and
the absorption of the water by the distemper ground. This
completes the gilding as far as the matt portion is concerned,
except for a final clear sizing and sometimes colouring or
coating with ormolu.

The burnished portion, however, requires polishing or burnish-
ing. This is done at the moment the gilding is dry, and before
it becomes so hard as to be brittle. An agate or flint stone, set
in a handle, is the burnisher. These are of different shapes.
They are rubbed lightly against the gold, which takes a re-
markably high polish, and retains it. Burnished gold must not
be sized.

Burnish and matt gilding are confined to the flat or curved
plain portions of the work, and are done first. The enriched
and fancy parts are afterwards oil-sized and gilded in the usual
manner.

Ormolu for matt gold is prepared from best garnet shellac
and white sticklac dissolved in spirits of wine, and tinted to the
required depth with dragon's blood ; a few drops are added to
the usual gelatine or parchment size to produce an even, lustre-
less and rich surface of any desired depth.

Glass Gilding. — Gilding upon glass is done in the same
manner as described for water gilding, isinglass size being used
in the place of water. The glass is well cleaned, freed from
grease, and set before the operator at a slight angle ; sometimes
the glass is upright, as in a window, and has to be done in that
position. The isinglass size, before described, is used in pre-
cisely the same way as the water in water gilding, and the gold
laid on the flowing size so as to stretch itself out as the size
recedes. The size must be used freely and allowed to run off
quickly. It must not be strong ; indeed, the weaker it is the
brighter will the finish of the gold be. The less size there is
remaining between the glass and the gold and between the two
coats of gold, the better polish can be obtained.

In all other methods of gilding the cold is attached from the

GILDING. 225

back of the leaf, and the finished work shows the unalloyed
brightness of the metal; but in the case of glass gilding, the size
comes between the gold and the eye, and the glass interposes a
further medium, so that it is at once apparent that the cleaner the
glass, and the clearer and thinner the film of size, the less is the
brilliance of the gilding interfered with. The purity and cleanli-
ness of the size and glass will be assured if the size can be laid
upon the glass without cissing or gathering. If it runs off like
water on a duck's back, the glass is greasy or the size is not
clean, or perhaps the water used is too hard; boiled rain water
makes the best size, but it must be quite clean and clear.

Gilding on glass requires a second coat in order to make a
solid job. The first coat of gold when dry is lightly polished
with finest cotton wool, and fixed and burnished by scalding
with very hot water as near boiling as can be used without
splitting the glass. It may be poured over from the spout of a
kettle, so as to run over the whole of the gilding, and then down
on to the ground, or laid over with a broad 4-inch camel-hair
flat. This removes the scum of the size from between the gild-
ing and the glass and adds to its clarity and brilliance. The
work may then be carefully polished with a piece of finest cotton
wool. It is then allowed to dry and the whole of the gilding
and clearing with hot water repeated ; after this the gold is
backed up by a coat of hard Japan or varnish which will dry in
about eight hours and have a perfect gloss. In cold weather the
whole of the glass must be treated with the hot water whether
gilded or not, or breakage will result from the inequality of
expansion produced, and if the day be frosty, the job must be
done very cautiously in a hot shop, or deferred. The water
must never be quite boiling.

The gold used for glass gilding is specially prepared, being
more even in thickness than the ordinary gold, and put up in
books of special paper that does not reqtiire dusting with French
chalk or Armenian bole to prevent the gold adhering to the book.
The gold thus supplied is much cleaner than that used for
general purposes. Turps colour must not be used to back up
gilding on glass. It is important that glass gilding be made
to dry off quickly and that no time be allowed to elapse between
the operations, or it will accumulate dust and get discoloured.

Although gilding on glass is looked upon as a difficult matter
to successfully carry through, all the difficulties are overcome
by the exercise of cleanliness. The cleanliness of the glass may
be tested by breathing on it, and if the moisture evaporates
quickly, leaving the glass clear, it will do. Glass may be made

226 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

chemically clean by the use of dilute nitric acid, and well rinsing
with water.

Cap or tissue paper is a good glass polisher. Filtered rain-
water makes the best isinglass size, or distilled water, as it is
free from metallic taint.

Gilding upon paper, parchment, and vellum can be best done
by using a size made from yolk of eggs and glycerine. This is
ground together with a little ochre and thinned with water. If
used in a very liquid state as a mere water wash size, and the
gold is laid directly thereon, as in glass gilding, it may be tooled
or burnished. All gold work should be sized before writing or
painting upon it.

Platinum and Silver Laying and Metalling. — Platinum
leaf is used in the same manner as gold leaf, and is applicable to
all the same purposes.

. Silver leaf and gold leaf of very pale tint, that is, which con-
tains a large proportion of silver, should never be laid on the oil
gold size, neither should metals which are subject to oxidisation,
as the oil has a strong affinity for oxygen, and the oxidisation of
the metals is set up and goes on more rapidly. If used upon a
spirit size, or water size, and well protected with lacquer or spirit
varnish, these metals will be perfectly lasting. Their durability
depends entirely on their perfect enclosure and envelopment in
an air-tight case of lacquer or varnish, both under and above
them.

Japanners' gold size, with, or without, the addition of a little
Venice turpentine makes as good a size as can be had for
metals. There are many special sizes for the purpose prepared
ready for use, but nothing is better than a good full bodied
japanners' size exposed to the air for a few days to fatten a
little.

Aluminium leaf may be used best on a mixture of ochre
ground in oil and japanners'. It is reported to be unchangeable,
and is so as far as it has been tested in actual decorating. It
cannot be lacquered into a good gold, but silver leaf can. Silver
is more lustrous than aluminium, which has a rather leaden
look when used alone. It makes a pretty combination with
gold, being greyer than silver. The cheaper metals can be laid
by hand, as they are so thick as to stand handling freely, and
can be cut into pieces with a pair of scissors.

The principal qualification for success in gilding is a deft
and delicate handling of the metals, especially gold leaf, and
there must also be a ready recognition of the possibilities and
peculiarities of each kind. Always remember that whatever

GILDING. 227

the condition of the under size or ground, it is hermetically
sealed up when the leaf is put on, which thus prevents any
change or further drying in the ordinary way; so that if gold
is laid on soft coats of paint, they will not all harden off together,
but will go on working under the gold, expanding and contract-
ing, and will ultimately ruin the gold leaf.

Bronzes. — Bronzes have the same qualities as the baser leaf
metals, and the same precautions must be observed in using
them. They must not be mixed with oil varnishes, or oil
mediums, but can be put upon japanners' gold size, or upon
any spirit varnishes in powder form. They can be mixed and
applied as liquids in any spirit varnish, or in size or gum,
though the tendency of gum to become acid sometimes turns
the bronze black. In bronzing with the powder, the size
(usually japanners' gold size), is applied, and when tacky, the
bronze is dusted on with a hare's foot, a wad of close cloth,
or a chamois leather pad. The bronze is protected by a thin
coat of lacquer, and then varnished in the ordinary way.

Bronzing should never be varnished over with oil copal
varnishes, as it will rapidly lose colour and oxidise if so
varnished ; some of the commoner house-painters' oak varnishes
have so little oil in them that this effect does not follow
rapidly. If metals, silver, or gold be sized with a clear jelly of
gelatine size, or thinly lacquered, they may be varnished with
any kind of varnish, as the interleaf of size will stop the direct
action of the varnish upon the metal.

Bronzing is sometimes used over paint to give the effect of
metal. Thus a piece of iron casting may be painted green or
copper colour, and then the highest portions of the relief touched
with bronze. This is done by coating the article with japanners'
varnish or gold size, and when tacky dusting over a little powder
bronze, which can be applied by a piece of cloth or velvet rubbed
in the powder. The bronze should not be applied to the bare
oil paint. The colour of the bronze must bear a correct relation
to the colour of the paint used.

Lacquer for Metals. — Various lacquers are used to give gold
or metal a different colour. Any lacquer can be made from an
ounce of good shellac dissolved in half a pint of spirits of wine,
and tinted with saffron, turmeric, Sanders, or other dye-woods,
dragon's blood, or any of the aniline powders. The most useful
colourings are turmeric and dragon's blood ; a colourless lacquer
may be used, and the tinting done by the use of transparent oil
colours in varnish.

The house painter often has to re-lacquer small brass fittings.

228 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

These are better gilded (as they can be gilt at very small cost)
and then coated with French polish or a good lacquer. This
does not apply to handles, &c, but to curtain hooks, curtain pole
ends and brackets, bell pulls, ifcc. ; clean, and give them a coat of
patent knotting before gold sizing ; gold size with japanners',
and gild in the usual way.

Preparing Open Grain Wood, and Stone for G-ilding. — To
prepare rough cut deal, ash, open grain oak, or stone, &c, for gild-
ing, give a couple of coats of French polish and spirit varnish in
equal parts, or two coats of patent knotting ; then gold size in the
usual manner. Japan gold size sometimes works cloggy in fine
lettering. The writer has found that when working indoors at
line gold lettering on a black ground, if the Japan size be stood
in a jar of hot water it keeps fluid and works extremely well,
setting quickly when once on the work. It must not be too
hot. A jam pot may be filled with hot water and the size in a
smaller pot stood in it.

Coe's Gilding Wheels. — Coe's patent ribbon gilding wheels
are of recent introduction, but their utility has already been
recognised by imitators. They are particularly useful for gilding
lines or patterns upon a flat surface.

Difficulties of wet, wind, dust, and cost are much minimised
by the use of the machine where it can be profitably used, and
quite 70 per cent, of time is saved, as against tip and cushion
gilding. All operations up to actual laying of the leaf are the
same. The instrument consists of two wheels, one of which con-
tains the gold leaf upon thin paper in an endless ribbon, and the
other is covered with soft felt. A handle is attached. The
wheel is simply rolled along the course of the gold size, and the
ribbon unrolls, the gold leaves it, and the paper is wound upon
the other wheel. The felt presses the gold as firmly in place as
required, the pressure being regulated by the operator at will
according to the condition of the gold size or mordant.

A modification of the principle is used for gilding concave or
convex surfaces, enrichments, &c, in which a camel-hair brush
takes the place of the felt wheel. This is also patented, and the
system will doubtless ultimately supersede the older methods.

Ribbon Gold Leaf. — This is supplied by most gold beaters.
We can recommend the Holmes-Braunlein of Hamiltons as one
of the most reliable.

229

CHAPTER XVII.

LETTERING AND SIGN-WRITING.

HE practice of sign- writing, or, as it
maybe more comprehensively termed,
"letter painting," embraces the de-
sign, display, and colouring of letters
upon surfaces of wood, metal, glass,
&c. The old English term " Letter
ing " fitly describes it. The best
decorative talent has always been bo-
stowed upon the art, and it has been
justly looked upon as calling forth
the highest skill of the painter, em-
bracing, as it does, all the manipula-
tive methods used in the trade.
Good sign-writing must embrace vigorous drawing, grace and
harmony of design, well developed colour, and delicate finish of
detail.

It may be divided broadly into two great sections. Sign-
writing for advertising purposes, and sign-writing for informa-
tive purposes. The first section may be bluntly described as
putting up that which you want the public to read, but which

230 PAINTING AM> DECORATING.

they will not search for and do not want to read. The second
as putting up information which is required and will be
searched for by the public. Of course this division implies
two opposite courses of action in determining how to do
the work. When closely examined it will be found that many
of the same rules will apply to both classes of sign-writing ;
indeed, the set of rules governing " Notice writing" as it may
be termed, will nearly all be operative in " Advertising" writing,
but with sundry additions.

Notice writing will consist of directions, door-plates, street
names, lists of charges and tolls, contents labels, public notices,
&c. The qualities required in this class of writing are distinct-
ness, legibility, simplicity, and harmony with surroundings.

Sign or advertising writing, though requiring to be readable,
must before all things be assertive, attractive, uncommon (if
possible), and bright even to showiness. A readable type is
especially important upon signs placed in busy thoroughfares, on
tram routes and railways to be read by him who runs, but
it is often obvious that too much importance has been given to
readableness. We have heard objections raised to old English
or black letter type as unreadable, and yet every one is familiar
with it and can read it upon the headings of most of our news-
papers. If an advertisement is sufficiently striking to attract
attention, experience shows that it will be read and understood,
even if written in Greek characters ; in fact, attention is some-
times called to an advertisement merely because it is a sort of
conundrum and requ;res a little puzzling out.

Prominence in Lettering. — The endeavour to make adver-
tisement lettering prominent has led to the exercise of a number
of expedients which are more or less open to question as a
matter of taste, but to the writer none of these are more inde-
fensible than the attempt to represent lettering as raised, or
shaded, or as in perspective. The usual excuses for this class of
work are, that it makes the lettering more prominent, and that
we have precedent in the works of Thornhill, and a number of
other great artists, for the perspective representation of objects
in flat decoration. To the latter argument the reply may be
made, that these works are more or less pictorial, and that
though they are the work of consummate artists, they reflect the
taste of their own times, and do not represent the highest and
best periods of art.

Shaded Lettering. — If the lettering of the best types of all
ages are examined, we find a total absence of any attempt at
sham relief. In so far as legibility or prominence are concerned

SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 231

the necessity for shading certainly does not exist. Judicious
contrast, edging, or outlining, will bring any lettering into the
utmost prominence possible to painted lettering on a flat surface.
The illustrations give some lead in this direction, especially the
headlines and initial letters. The student should always bear
in mind the fact that any attempts at sham or deception are
open to serious question, and require a far more reasonable
justification than can be supplied in this instance.

A serious argument against the representation of painted per-
spective lettering, may be found in the fact that the centre of
vision of the spectator has to be arbitrarily selected, a fact
which makes the representation absurd and incorrect from every
different station point or point of view.

Illegible Type in Lettering. — Another expedient which has
frequently been resorted to in the search after novelty, and in
order to attract attention, is the use of the curious, rather than
the beautiful and legible in lettering, and especially in the
ornamentation of letters. Letters formed from the human figure
in grotesque attitudes, from twisted branches of trees, or from
contorted ribbons. In this manner really fine typical alphabets
have been neglected, and set aside in favour of misshapen freaks
fit only for a museum of paleographical curiosities. The only
redeeming feature one can see in such courses is that consider-
able technical skill has been necessary to carry out the ideas,
and thus the executant power and expertness of the sign writer
have been maintained. But this gain has been outweighed
by a distinct loss of refinement and artistic selection.

Books on Lettering. — In glancing through the many books
that have been written upon sign writing, the attention is
arrested by the false note which is struck by many of these
guides. An alphabet is illustrated, and the student is referred
to it as if the particular and identical forms there given were
arbitrary. This cramped and narrow view is drilled into the
reader at every turn, and he concludes that the whole art of
lettering consists in the committing to memory of certain sets of
symbols associated together under the name of block, Roman,
Italic, Egyptian, Gothic, &c. He is directed to use these forms
as if they were facts, instead of the mere visible and manual
expression of facts. The most important words that can be said
to students of lettering are that letters owe their precise form to
convention and not to law. There is no set proportion or rule
for their construction, and if the letter conveys its meaning in
an unmistakable manner, it has fully accomplished its purpose.
It is quite permissible, for instance, to use half a-dozen different

232

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

forms of the same letter in one inscription it' there is any proper
reason or excuse for so doing, providing they harmonise in style
and design.

Forms of Letters Changed by Environment. — The con-
tinual change of environment to which the letters in words are
subject, call for corresponding and accommodating changes in
form:- -Thus T following L and before A as in DELTA, may
have more breadth at top than T coming before W as in TWO.
In this way written or painted inscriptions have much advan-
tage over printed or stencilled lettering (see plates and headlines).

Letters, too, may be made more or less unmistakable in form in
accordance with their importance or connection. Thus in the
word TOO the two OO's may be looped together for artistic
effect even at the loss of legibility, because the remaining letters
make the word quite unmistakable. Words such as " and " or
" the," which are in most instances understood by implication
as much as by expression, may be made more or less ornamental,
and less easily readable. On the contrary, proper names or
words in which the alteration of a single letter imparts a different
meaning, must be kept plain and intelligible. The form of the
letters may also be altered for the sake of balance and design.
If a number of letters with perpendicular lines come together, it
is often desirable to introduce a few curves and vice versa.
Take the two words

GENCL6M6N
ROCHES

Fig. 78.

In the former the round-backed 6 may be introduced for the
sake of contrast ; while in the latter every available and admis-
sible bit of straight line will be an advantage (Fig. 78).

Rules for Construction of Letters. — Rules for the con-
struction of alphabets and letters are useful only as suggestions,
and the less they are relied upon by the student the more
characteristic and versatile will his style of lettering become.
While this freedom of choice and design is admissible, it must

SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 233

not be imagined that letters of various type and style may be
intermixed indiscriminately. There are governing ideas and
leading peculiarities in every age and style, which cannot be
set aside without resultant discord. Certain characteristics
require to be consistently upheld in all the letters of an inscrip-
tion or sign.

Take the plain letter known as "block." Here the governing
idea is a letter of uniform breadth, no thick and thin lines, no
serifs or little projections at the ends. Working within these
limits, the artist is at liberty to design his letters to suit the
space or position or material in which he is working. Some
alphabets, on the other hand, consist of thick and thin lines
representing up and down strokes. Some have serifs, or ends, of
particular shape which must be consistently adhered to through-
out the inscription.

Some are rigidly confined to a given height; others take any
height within given lines; others again have projecting heads
and tails both above and below the lines. These features, when
of sufficient importance to give class or character to lettering,
become fixed laws for that particular type, but still leave a vast
amount of freedom to the taste and ingenuity of the designer.
Another question that comes up for solution in this connection
is that of style in its chronological or architectural sense. A
knowledge of the laws of harmony is necessary to the student
before he can successfully combine lettering of different historic
periods without a sense of incongruity, but that it is quite
possible to do so is scarcely open to question.

In the three original alphabets illustrated, the writer has
endeavoured to introduce the double curve or ogee line ; this
gives quite a fresh character to the type. In the small alphabet,
the letters are arranged to mix well in irregular order. The
Gothic letters are derived from a combination of consistent
fifteenth century lettering, but made suitable for brush as
opposed to pen work ; note the brush curves in each letter.

Lettering and Methods of Work. — Lettering has not really
changed ; it has merely undergone a process of evolution,
brought about chiefly through the change in the materials used
for the expression of thought in writing. Thus, we have lettering
which is the outcome of the stylus, the reed pen, the brush, the
needle, chisel, punch, and knife ; and we have alphabets that
have been devised on paper, wood, linen, stone, metal, wax, and
a host of other materials. All these possess interest and are full
of suggestion, but in order that they may be mixed together
with a sense of fitness, they must be passed through the medium

234 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

of the brain of the worker, and so changed as to admit of their
being suitably worked in the medium, material, and manner that
he is using at the time. Students should particularly avoid the
use of letters for painted signs which are obviously " pen" letters,
or embroidery letters, unless they are so skilful as to adapt the
whole form of them to the exigencies of brush-work. This is
often done with much pleasureable and artistic result, but
unless the change in form that it brings about is real and
genuine, such lettering is as much open to objection as other
shams. A study of some of the earlier printed books in which
the capital and versal letters were left out in the type and added
with the brush and pen by the illuminator, will very clearly
show the marked difference between the spirit of pen, type, and
brush-work. Quite recently Mr. Walter Crane has designed an
alphabet, in which the flexible quill pen is used with masterly
skill to give a new character to the lettering, by bulging out the
centre of the perpendicular lines. The whole charm of this
lettering has been lost and the idea made to appear absurd, by
its slavish imitation in brush-work by sundry poster printers,
etc., and it has even crept into type books.

The study of the vai-ious books on lettering will help the
student in his selection of good types. He should also collect
any scraps of printed matter, as advertisements, title pages,
headlines, and bookplates that appear worthy of study, forming
the best of them into a scrap book for reference.

Putting these ideas into a condensed form for application in
practical work, we have, first, the necessity for the selection of
good, effective, and readable type, adequate to the demands of
the brush and a flat surface treatment; next, the need for adapta-
tion of the forms of the letters to their position and environment,
with freedom to alter their more usual shapes, consistently with
general harmony and in accordance with style.

Colouring of Lettering. — Our next consideration is the
matter of colour. The colouring of lettering is, of course,
governed by the same rules as that of ornament. It may be
regarded as an axiom, that lettering should always be coloured
in contrast to its gi'ound. The only divergence from this rule
is when the lettering forms a pattern, rather than an inscription,
as in the use of mottoes, heraldic or otherwise, repeated to form
part of diapered or pattern-covered surfaces Prominence of
colour should be given to important letters or words. The
amount of contrast is determined by the position and purpose of
the sign. Whilst deprecating the use of absurd and meaningless
shadows, and prefering letters which appear in their proper

SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 235

plane, rather than in an impossible projection, there are several
methods by which the prominence of lettering may be increased,
and we are not transgressing the laws of good taste if we borrow
suggestions from raised or sunk letters, while making no attempt
to imitate them or deceive the observer.

Enrichment and. Prominence of Letters. — The raised
letter owes its prominence to the fact of its separation from its
ground. If we wish to give added prominence to, say, a gold
letter on a medium blue ground, we may do so by outlining the
gold with a pale yellow or cream colour on the gold, thus
emphasizing the edge ; or by the contrary way of deepening the
ground where it comes into contact with the gold by the use of
a very deep blue outline. The same principle may be applied
to all colours. A white letter on a green ground may be empha-
sized by a gold outline, or by a black outline. If we borrow the
suggestion found in a sunk letter we can obtain the same visual
prominence by a central line of deeper hue, and a light outline.
Thus, a vermilion letter on an olive ground may be given all the
attraction that a sunk letter has by edging it with a salmon tint
and giving it a central line of crimson. These instances can be
multiplied ad libitum. Outlines may be multiplied and added
to and strengthened by elaboration. Grounds may be enriched,
diapered, and ornamented in a variety of ways, which give great
scope to the artistic and inventive worker. These methods
need not be expensive, indeed are less so than the elaborate
systems of blocking and shading, now out of date. Take this
suggestion as an instance : — On a rich Tuscan or Indian red
ground, a gold, plain type letter ; on this a little way in from
the edge leaving a gold outer line, put a fine line of brightest
sky-blue full in tone ; to further enrich it put a primrost line on
the ground \ inch broad and \ inch from the gold. Or, again,
take a bright orange as a ground, on which stencil a close pattern
all over in buimt Sienna ; on this place an open letter in gold \
inch wide, for, say, 8-inch letters; fill in the centre of the letters
a bright torquoise blue, not too deep, and outline the gold with
creamy white outside, j? inch wide, and very dark blue inside, ^
inch wide. Many valuable hints on colour may be noted from
illuminated manuscripts. Colour effect experiments should be
made on single letter sketches. Select a decided colour for
the body of letters and a less pronounced colour for the
ground.

Setting out Sign-Writing. — The practical aspect of sign-
writing is the next matter for attention.

Painting and varnishing have already been dealt with, and

236 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

gilding, in as far as the processes are concerned, lias been fully
described. For specific directions on these subjects, the reader
is referred to the chapters devoted to them.

The setting out of lettering is the first operation. In the case
of elaborate work, or a large quantity, the setting out is usually
first drawn on a paper. For facia, large and displayed work —
tbat is, work where special parts are given special prominence,
&,o. A small sketch to scale is the better way to commence, this
being afterwards enlarged directly on to the work. The setting
out on the actual sign will be done in chalk or pipe-clay, or in
the case of light ground or on distemper, charcoal is sometimes
used. Take the case of a facia 16 feet long, with a single line of
lettering, say, John Thomson and Sons. First, count the letters,
reckoning every space between words as a letter also. This
gives 21 letters. Now deduct a little space to be left clear at
each end of the facia, say 1 foot, this leaves 14 feet to be occupied
by the name, or ^~ of a foot = |- foot = 8 inches for each letter,
and each space between words. Of course, the letters will not
actually fill the whole 8 inches, as there will be a slight space
between the letters themselves, neither will all the letters
occupy identically the same space. This is a matter for adjust-
ment as the setting out is proceeded with. A space of 8 inches
is now ticked off on the sign and the writer sketches in an
average letter, usually the E or H, by which he arrives at a suit-
able height for his letters. Lines are next struck by the use of
a chalked string, held at each end firmly at the proper spot and
pulled a little way off the board in the centre and allowed to
snap back against it, leaving a clear and straight line. Some
letters require double lines top and bottom and a central line,
but the two lines suffice for most purposes.

f JOHN THOMSON AND SONS J

Fig. 79.

The setting out is then undertaken. The best method is to
consider each 4 or 5 letters in groups and allocate to each its
proper portion of space. Thus the first four may be taken, 32
inches being their limit. J will not require quite the average
amount of space, O a little above the average, H and N being
two straight letters want a little extra allowance of space
between them, while the shape of J suggests that it may be
carried a little beyond its limit into the preliminary space.

Plate 21.— ALPHABET, ORIGINAL, DEDUCED FROM GOTHIC.
To face p. 236.]

SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 237

The illustration shows the application of the principle; the
dotted lines indicating the 8-inch spaces. The letters should be
sketched in lightly, as any excess of chalk clogs the pencil when
colouring or gold sizing.

Next, the set square should be used to test the accuracy of the
perpendiculars. Nothing is so exasperating to the eye as to see
lettering which is not upright ; curiously, almost every man has
a tendency to allow his lettering to lean slightly, unless he uses
the square to check it. The edges of the lettering should not
be ruled, but an upright line put up the centre, so as to leave
some freedom to the painter-in. In like manner, the use of the
compasses is recommended as a check or guide, but not to be
followed literally. Any superfluous chalk is then removed, and
the work is ready for colouring.

A slightly different, method is adopted for closely written
notices or continuous writing ; suppose, as an instance, the
writing is to be the decalogue, or Lord's prayer, in church text
on a board 5 feet high ; the size of the letters is first determined,
lines are then marked for one line of writing, and a portion of
the wording sketched in, a fairly proportioned letter being used
across one whole line. Next the number of letters which have
been got into this line must be ascertained. Supposing this to
be 40 letters, the whole matter must be divided into sections
containing, as nearly as the spelling will permit, 40 letters to each
section. This gives the number of lines necessary for the whole.
Presuming the letters set out to be 1 inch high, this gives 40
inches for the lettering, and 20 inches for the spacing between
the lines of letters. It is then necessary to deduct from the 20
inches sufficient top and bottom space, say 2 inches for each,
leaving 16 inches for between the lines, or about § of an inch
between each line. In writing a large number of letters of this
kind, it is well to work on a good hard ground, and to do the
setting out with a very soft black lead pencil, or coloured chalk
pencil. This can be carefully washed off after the work is com-
pleted. The writer has found a soft pencil to work well on light
flatted grounds, if the flatting has just a little varnish in it to
harden it. When washing off the marks after lettering, use a
soft sponge and a leather for drying, and allow the work to be well
soaked with clean water before rubbing at all. Use a little
ordinary hard yellow soap, if necessary.

If the setting out has been done upon the work, it is ready for
the painting, but if it has been done upon paper, it will now
require converting into a pounce, by pricking little holes all
along the outlines of the letters ; a needle set in a wood handle,

238 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

or pricker holder, is used. The fineness of the holes depends
upon the class of work, but the finer they are, the better the
pouncing can be worked over. The pricking is done upon a
piece of board covered with baize or cloth, and the pricker must
be held perpendicularly to avoid slanting holes. After pricking,
the "burr" must be rubbed off the back of the paper with a
piece of new No. 1J glass paper lightly used.

Pounces. —The pounce is applied in the following manner : —
Having placed it in position, the operator holds it firmly, or pins
it down, and dusts through the holes by means of a pounce bag, a
pounce roll, or a dry sash tool, some powdered whiting, charcoal,
or rouge. To make the pounce bag, take a square piece of linen,
put on it a handful of powdered whiting, charcoal, or red chalk,
gather the edges together and tie round tightly in the form of a
bag with a piece of string. A pounce roll is better for finer
work. Take a piece of close-grained cloth, 9 by 6 inches ; strew
it with powdered chalk on one half divided lengthwise, and with
powdered black lead on the other ; roll tightly up, and bind round
the centre portion with string. This is used with a circular
rubbing motion over the pounce, the white end on dark grounds,
and the black on light grounds. Care must be observed in
pouncing that only sufficient powder is passed through the holes
to give a good clear impression sufficient to work by.

Painting Letters. — The next point to be considered is the
actual painting of the letters. For this the tools necessary are,
a palette, a mahl stick, and sable or ox-hair pencils. Sable
pencils are decidedly preferable for all classes of sign-writing,
and are regarded as the cheaper in the long run. A clipper to
hold turpentine, or sometimes the colour itself, must be clipped
on to the palette. The palette is used upon the thumb of the
left hand, the mahl stick being held in the palm of the same
hand. The skilful use of the pencils must be acquired by con-
tinued practice, and all that can be done here to ensure success
is to give a few hints.

Hints on Using Sable Pencils. — Large long-handled
pencils, with sticks not too thin, are the best. They must be
held freely and loosely, giving free play to the hairs for the
sweeps and curves, between the thumb and forefingers; usually
the forefinger supplies the pressure necessary, while the thumb
and second finger govern the direction. The eye must not be
fixed upon the point of the brush, but must look a little ahead
of it, on the same principle as that when walking we do not look
at our feet. Of course, there are times when this rule needs
relaxing, as in finishing up fine points, or in working over

SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 239

obstacles. The pencils are kept in good order by well washing
in turpentine, drying on a piece of fine rag, and greasing
with soft tallow. When washing, greasing, or wiping, always
do so in the direction of heel to point. Never disturb the posi-
tion of the hairs by pulling them asunder, but always draw them
to a point. In taking up colour from the palette observe the
same rule. The colour or gold size must work freely without
any tendency either to slide or to set too quickly.

If the colour is just right, it will flow evenly and freely from
the brush, and yet have a slight tendency to hold the brush to
the work. Different pigments require varying proportions of
thinners, some will work better if extra thin, while others
require to be thicker in consistency ; experience only will
give the precise fluidity. It may be taken, as a rule, that
if the work does not proceed easily and with comfort, some-
thing is wrong with the colour. A little varnish added to the
colour often corrects its tendency to slip and run. If the colour
stands a few days, it will work better than newly thinned colour.

For light tints, a stiffish sable is necessary, a red sable or even
an ox hair, as the colour is heavy ; but for black, gold size or
dark colours, a good springy, but soft pencil will get over more
work. Keep the pencil well filled with colour or the body of
the writing will be uneven. Do not attempt to do both edges of
a letter with one stroke of the brush ; no time is saved by so
doing, and letters so worked are less graceful in form than where
the outline is obtained by two strokes, as the two sides of a well-
formed letter are never geometrically parallel. Foi m the outline
of the letter first, then fill in with a larger brush, if necessary,
but do not let outlines partially set before doing so. Lay off
the colour evenly and avoid any fat edges to the letters. These
are frequently caused by a twisting motion being given to the
pencil in using it. Avoid runs, practice constantly on a var-
nished board with colour in which there is no drier, so that it
may again and again be wiped off. "When practising, do not set
out, but sketch the letters in by outlining them. This will
teach the two operations at one lesson and save time.

To acquire facility, practice the brush strokes illustrated here,
until they become easy.

Consider how the letters are to be finished before starting,,
as it is sometimes advisable to do the outline first, especially if
it be a gilded outline to a coloured letter. When gold lettering
or gilding of any sort is about to be done, see that the ground is
not sticky, or the gold will adhere to it as well as to the parts
gold sized. Pounce the ground over with the white pounce bag,

240 TAINTING AN!) DKCORATINO.

if very tacky, or size over with egg white and water, as already
described for gilding. Use oil gold size whenever you are able
to, as the gilding will be far superior in burnish and will last
longer.

Writing on Silk. — Writing upon silk for banners is accom-
plished by using a pounce, and by first either sizing in the parts
to be worked upon with clear glue size, allowing it to cover the
extreme outline of the painting, or by using a first coat of flatting
colour made with varnish and turps. Banners which are sized
will less readily crack, as the oil does not have so destructive
an effect upon the textile material.

Glass Embossing. — Glass writing may well be preceded by
a few hints on glass embossing. Glass embossing consists in
producing sunk letters or ornament upon glass by means of
fluoric acid. It is sometimes used upon flashed or coated glass,
as in sheet ruby, to remove the coloured glass film and leave a
white letter, or vice-versd ; at other times to produce a clear
letter upon a ground glass surface, or a slightly obscure letter
upon a clear surface. There are four distinct contrasting whites
obtainable on glass by means of acid. First, the polished sur-
face of the glass itself; next, a slightly dulled surface produced
by sunk embossing with ordinary acid ; third, a matt or dead
white produced by the use of "white" acid; fourth, ground
glass produced by rubbing the portions of the glass which are
left raised after the use of the acid, with a fat slab of copper and
fine emery powder and water. The first two surfaces are mainly
used for gilding and colouring upon. Combinations of the whole
are used for glass which is required to remain uncoloured, as in
doors and windows, where it is desired to retain the light.

The method of glass embossing is a simple one. The glass is
cleaned thoroughly and placed face downwards upon a reverse
tracing of the setting out, in which, of course, the letters all
appear backwards. This reverse is obtained by placing a piece
of carbonised or blackened paper under the paper on which the
letters are set out and tracing over the outlines with a hard
pencil. The parts of the glass which are not to be subjected to
the action of the fluoric acid are then painted over with an acid-
resisting paint. Brunswick black, of an ordinary quality, is a
good resist ; some add red lead to it and others a little beeswax.
The addition of beeswax certainly strengthens and toughens the
resisting quality of the black, but necessitates a very warm place
in which to do the painting, otherwise fine work is difficult, as
the colour clogs. When the resist is quite dry, the plate is sub-
jected to the action of the acid. The usual method is to erect a

SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 241

putty edge round the glass, termed " walling," the putty for the
purpose being made from beeswax and Russian tallow, with
sometimes a little Burgundy pitch added to harden it. The
ingredients are melted together and allowed to cool. The glass is
then laid upon a flat bench, in a well ventilated room so as to allow
the fumes of the acid to escape ; carefully levelled, by placing a
few ashes or sawdust under it to make a good level bed ; and the
acid carefully poured on to the glass to an even depth of f of an
inch. It is necessary to dilute the acid by the addition of from
one-half to two-thirds water ; add a little vitriol or nitric acid, two
ounces of either to a pint of acid, and mix the whole in a box
or tray of sheet lead having a lip from which to pour the acid on
to the glass. There should be a lid of lead to the tray. The
same acid may be used again and again, until it has been reduced
by waste and evaporation, when new acid can be added. The
acid should be strained or filtered occasionally through linen or
filter paper, to take away particles of stopping wax, &c, and
s diment of glass. - Fluoric acid must be kept in gutta-percha or
lead bottles, or diluted acid may be kept in the tray if the lid is
stopped round with the Russian tallow to prevent leakage and
escape of fumes.

The time necessary for the exposure of glass will vary accord-
ing to the strength of the acid and the make of the glass. It
should be tested on a strip of waste glass of similar kind to that
about to be used. When the aciding is deep enough, the acid is
poured back into the tray through an aperture made in the wax
" walling," by gently tilting the glass. The face of the glass
near this point must be smeared with tallow to prevent the acid
running under, which would damage the front of the glass. When
the acid has been poured off, the glass is soused with water to
remove the rest of the acid, the walling is removed and stored
in a pot for future use, and the resist paint cleaned off by the
use of paraffin, turps, benzine, or potash. The glass is then
thoroughly washed with soap and water, followed by vinegar
and water, and polished ready for gilding or whatever other
method of finishing is intended. The six letters on Plate 22 are
suitable for embossed and gilded lettering for facias.

Glass Writing. — To gild the glass, it is again laid upon the
reverse setting out, and the portions to be gilt are laid with
gold in the method already described under Gilding. The
gold must be laid well over the letters and beyond their
edge, but of course only a rough shape of the letters will be
obtained by this method of gilding. When the gilding is com-
pleted, the drawing, or setting, is pricked and the pounce

242 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

obtained is pounced, reversed, on to the gold at the back of the
glass. The portions that are to remain gold are then backed
with best coach black Japan, or hard carriage varnish in which a
little ochre has been ground. This gives the required shape
and form to the letters and the superfluous rough edges of gold
are left unprotected. When the Japan is quite hard, a little
warm water and sponge will remove the odd bits of gold, leaving
the letters sharp and clear.

Any etching upon the gold surface, as the shading-up of
heraldic devices, &c, is done with a wooden stylus, or a needle,
before the gold is backed by the Japan or varnish, in which case
also, the colour of the Japan must be determined by the colour
required to show up on the etched lines.

When the glass has again been thoroughly cleaned, the colours
can be added. It is well to restrict the quantity of colour upon
the glass to the least possible quantity ; consequently, it is
undesirable to recoat the backing of the gold letters when
putting on the coloured portions, and also to carefully consider
the colouring of outlining, ifec, so as to obtain the finished result
with as little colour and labour as possible. The colours used
may be the ordinary oil tube colours with varnish added, and in
some cases a little terebine or drier, especially in the case of
lakes. The more glossy and full the colour used, the more rich
and mellow will it appear on the face side of the glass. In the
use of shading, whether for mere gradation of tone, or for light
and shade work, the blending will be much simplified if the
following routine is followed : — Leave the shading till the last.
Use short stiffish red sables for doing it. Work so that the light
passes through the glass to the eye, and frequently examine the
face side, because a perfectly even gradation may be obtained on
the surface of the colour, while the part that is seen from the
front may not be properly blended. Put in the deepest colour
first, then the next lighter, working this into the last, following
with the next, and, finally, with the lightest, always working
light into dark and not vice versd.

For some classes of shading, transparent lakes or blues with
varnish added, are used, and afterwards backed up with white or
metal leaf. A good even shade can be obtained by using water
colour, and afterwards backing it with varnish.

White adding is a ready method of obscuring glass, and has
much the appearance of ground glass ; it does not leave the glass
comparatively clear, as the ordinary fluoric acid does.

Etching Glass. — Etching on glass may be done by fluoric
acid, and is useful for fine work. The glass is covered with a

SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 213

wax coating, and the lines etched out with a stylus or etching
tool. The wax is made less brittle in cold weather by the
mixing of a little tallow or palm oil with it.

General Notes on Sign-writing. — The following notes may
be found useful in special circumstances : —

American cloth, or Crockett's leather cloth, makes a good
covering for rough signs or for temporary purposes. It may be
either strained or tacked on the board, and the edges covered by
a moulding, or stuck down all over the board with a mixture of
white lead and japanners' gold size. The writing may be done
either before or after fixing the cloth to the board. Canvases
of various kinds may be used for the same purpose, but should
be sized before being painted.

To represent frosted, ground, and embossed letters on polished
plate glass, stipple the glass with a mixture of driers, a little
ivory black, and turps. When dry, scratch out letters with a
sharpened stick, a chisel, or pointed pieces of wood, guided either
by the aid of a stencil plate, or by ordinary setting out in pencil,
and the use of straight-edges. The frosting may also be coloured
to taste, by adding colour instead of black to the driers stippling
mixture. Letters may be written on ground glass, with pale
white varnish, the ground glass being previously sized to prevent
running, if the grinding is rough. These letters may be edged
with colour or gold, and are very effective.

Blue-grounded sign-boards, produced by strewing powdered
smalts over a freshly-varnished surface, used to be common,
lasted long, and were brilliant. The letters should be written
first on an ordinary blue ground, and allowed to become hard ;
and the ground afterwards varnished and smalted.

Lettering may be produced on white glazed tiles by the same
process as that used for embossing glass. The embossed portions
are then filled in with colour ground in varnish.

Prints and trade marks may be transferred to glass signs
by the following method without re-painting. Well size the
back of the print, and after getting the position for the print,
varnish the space it is to occupy with French oil or other good
varnish. When this is partially dry, but still tacky, sponge the
face of the print with water, and well blot the surface dry; then
lay it, surface down, on the varnish, and press well, all over until
it firmly adheres to the varnish ; allow it to harden for a couple
of days, and then sponge off the paper of the print by careful
soaking and gentle abrasion with the finger tips. When all
the paper that will come off without injury to the surface has
been removed, varnish the back with another coat of varnish,
taking care that the work is quite free from dampness.

244 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Lettering with embossed centres and bright outline on
polished plate, backed with ground glass, is a very durable and
effective method of treatment for doors and windows.

Wire gauze window blinds should be lettered, by first using a
filling-up composition of dry white lead, varnish, and turps, and
giving two or three coats until a level surface is obtained. This
is applied to the best advantage with a camel-hair pencil. Care
must be taken to keep the edges clean and straight, and not to
till up beyond the area of the letters, as the interstices of the
gauze ground must be kept open to contrast with the solid
letters.

Writing on glass to read effectively by day or gas-light and
to appear decoratively from the outside of the shop, may be done
as follows: — Outline in white or gold, so that the outline appears
opaque on the front of the glass ; then stipple the letter on the
back in transparent colouring, and, finally, add a similar outline
on the back of the glass.

Coffin plates are usually lettered upon bright tin in dead
black, or upon dead black in japanners' gold size and gilt, bronzed,
or silvered.

A quick and inexpensive glass sign is made by putting the let-
tering on in Brunswick black, and water-gilding the ground, or
by blacking the ground and leaving the lettering to be gilded.

Aphorisms for Sign-Writers. — This chapter may be fitly
concluded by a few aphorisms which may be valuable to the
sign-writer.

Do not mix slanting and perpendicular letters on the same

Do not sacrifice legibility to elaboration.

When in doubt as to type, choose the simpler.

Beware of mixing periods and styles without judgment.

Consider associations and sentiment ; " Good old Irish " in
" church text " may offend some persons' susceptibilities.

Avoid using too many mechanical aids in the formation of
letters. The square and compasses are better as servants than
masters.

Regulate the contrast between the colour of letter and ground
by the object of the sign.

Excellence must be obtained by hard work and constant
practice. When a certain point of excellence is reached, then
facility and speed come readily ; all the best writers are speedy
ones.

The finer the colour is ground, the better it works in the pen-
cil. Use artists' tube colours ; they pay their cost in time saved.

PLATE IV.

SIG,N-WRIT1NG ANI> LETTKIUNG. 2^fO

Use the best sables procurable, and by preference a long and
flexible one ; the practice and mastery of it thus acquired will
show the value of this advice in the rapidity with which sweep-
ing curves can be effected.

The greatest error a beginner can make, is to use too small a
brush ; use the largest with which it is possible to do the work
in hand.

A stiffer brush is required for heavy colours, as white, than
for deep, as black.

Use the pencil full of colour, and refill every time it is taken
off the work, drawing it to a point upon the palette.

Colour for writing woi'ks better if it has been made up for a
day or two.

A very little varnish added to tube colours is useful, as it
causes the colour to hang slightly and prevents slipping.

Do not be misled by fashion into the use of lettering which is
ugly and misshapen.

Glass gilding and writing must be done in such a way that as
little colour as possible is put upon the glass ; the less paint
used the less likelihood there is of its cracking or scaling off.

Varnish and Japans are better for use on glass than quick
colours or flatting.

When stencilling on glass for embossing, beeswax melted and
added to the Brunswick black makes a better resist than plain
Brunswick black.

246

CHAPTER XVI IT.

liCORATION, in the sense in which
the term is here used, may he under-
stood to embrace all those methods and
processes used in the adornment and
beautifying of houses, churches, and
public buildings, as opposed to that
part of the painters' work which is
merely sanitary and preservative.

It is divisible into two great sec-
tions dealing respectively with colour
and ornament.
Importance of Colour in Decoration. — Colour may fairly
claim our largest share of attention. The balance and harmony
of colour in a decorative scheme being satisfactory, very little
attention will be bestowed by the observer upon the detail of
ornament, unless it be of a particularly interesting character, or
arrests attention by its prominence.

Upon the consideration of colour, however, pattern has an
important bearing, as the term colour must not be understood
to refer to local hue only, but to the general effect of the portion
of work referred to. The colour of a surface may be consider-
ably changed by the addition of pattern, and though upon the
same ground colour two different patterns may be put, in pre-

DECORATION. 247

cisely the same colour, they are very likely to produce two dis-
similar colour results (see Plate 24).

The use of both colour and ornament in a decorative sense is
the same; by their aid form and proportion are emphasized,
structural facts expressed or repressed, and richness, vaxiety, and
quality added to the work. The use of colour necessitates little
or no additional labour, and the cheapest and most utilitarian
work may be raised and refined in feeling and standard by its
artistic employment, or lowered and vulgarised by its ignorant
use, without affecting its cost. The use of ornament, on the
contrary, involves additional labour and expense, and the
possession of the creative faculty in the designer. The ability
to design cannot be altogether acquired by study or inculcated
by tuition, and it rarely falls to the lot of the working painter
to be required to design original patterns.

Knowledge of style and power of selection are within the
reach of all who study the forms used by the workers of the
past, and cultivate the ability to classify and arrange them ; as is
also the power of combining and adapting them to altered con-
ditions and the materials of to-day.

Considerations Governing the Use of Colour in Decora-
tion.— It is not within the scope of the present work to deal
minutely with the rules and laws of the harmony of colour, but
merely to lay down a few broad principles which have been found
serviceable by the writer. A separate chapter will be devoted
to their application to practical work.

In the use of colour, it is well to bring to bear upon the
selection, those ordinary faculties Which one u ses in considering
the more mundane things of life, and which are so often ignored
in relation to art matters. Nothing should be done without a
common-sense reason. The theory that colouring is a kind of
inspiration may be true of one or two per million of the inhabi-
tants of this planet, but the remaining population need to
exhibit the same shrewdness and calculation on this subject, that
they would do upon a commercial transaction. This rule is so
often lost sight of that it is here given prominence.

No colouring should be entered on without a definite plan or
scheme. Every tint and colour should have a reason for its
place; nothing should be left to chance. The eye must be the
final arbiter, but it must arrive at its decisions by the operation
of the reason.

In the colouring of objects, the material of which they are
made should be taken into consideration, and their purpose,
architectural and useful, may have some weight in the decision

248 PAINTINC, AND DECORATING.

of their colouring. Illustrations and instances are more con-
vincing than theory. Some have already been noted in other
connections and to these the following may be added : —

Supporting features, such as pillars, pilasters, corbels, brackets,
and beams should be more strongly coloured than their surround-
ings— that is, they should by contrast appear stronger in colour.
Strength in this connection is not intended to mean posit iveness,
but comparative force and insistence.

Thus against a green background, red, or white, or any allied
colours would be strong colours under ordinary conditions, but
if the green were a strong and positive green, and the red a
brownish quiet-toned red, the green would be the stronger and
more insistent colour in the sense here intended.

Architectural features, whether pleasing or the reverse, must
not be ignored if they are in any degree prominent features.
They may be modified and softened by decorative treatment, but
no adventitious attempt must be made to hide them. The
utility of objects should justify their presence ; and ventilators,
heating apparatus, and the like necessary fittings, should not
be imperfectly disguised by being painted to match surroundings.
Stone mantels, &c, must be treated as such, and not painted in
wood colours ; and wood structures and fittings should be
coloured in hues suggestive of wood. Plaster mouldings upon
ceilings should be painted as plaster, unless their form and
pattern is one that will equally well suggest wood. E Seeding
members of a moulding should be treated in receding colours,
and prominent members in prominent tints. These instances
might be multiplied, but the line of procedure being indicated
it becomes an easy matter to follow it in detail.

Another important feature in colouring is the element of
weight. There is a law of gravitation in colour as well as in
substance. In building up a colour scheme it must be adhered
to, or a topsy-turvy effect is produced. Low-toned tertiary
colours are mostly what are known as heavy colours, and pure
tints as light ones. In additions to these distinctions the element
of suggestion, or implication, has some force in determining the
weight of a colour. Thus, stone colour is a heavy colour by
implication and suggestion, as also is slate, bronze, copper, and
white; while fawn, sky greys and blues, silver and gold, are by
implication, light colours. The two latter never associate them-
selves in the mind as the colour of metals, so much us the colour
of the heavenly bodies, and of the edges of the clouds, probably
because we see them in greater masses in the latter connection.
Greens range themselves into two families, light and heavy, the

DEC0KAT10N. 249

mineral and earthy greens being reckoned as heavy colours, and
the foliage greens as light colours. The term "light "as here
used is not intended to refer to paleness or whiteness, but to
weight. The reality of these distinctions is none the less,
because it is not easy to specify rules by which the student may
be guided.

The colouring should always conform to the temperament of
the occupants and the uses and purpose of the apartment, in
as far as these can be ascertained. The influence of the sur-
roundings may be further intensified by the influence of colour.

It should be remembered that colour that is produced by visual
intermixture, is more pleasing than a uniform tint ; thus a tree,
with its many varied leaf tints, presents a more pleasing green
to the eye when viewed at a distance, than would be the case if
the tree were clothed with leaves of a uniform green. The
subtle gradations caused by light and shade and contour, all add
mystery, depth, and richness. In decoration the same result
holds good, and is obtained by the use of broken and uneven
surfaces, and patterns distributed over surfaces.

Everything deceptive and unreal should be avoided in colour-
ing. However pleasing its effect may be on first acquaintance,
as soon as the deception is discovered it fails to satisfy the
Keeker for beauty : —

"Beauty is Truth; truth, Beauty."

The highest ideal in human colouring will always fall far short
of the colour which is to be found in Nature. We have no
means of portraying the elusive and living colour that we see in
the clouds, the flowers, and the water; but we have in Nature a
reference book of inexhaustible value, a constantly changing
kaleidoscope of harmonious combinations, which offers sugges-
tions without end. Nature's colouring sets all the rules of the
scientist and the pedant at defiance, but never violates her own.
The study of flowers will alone furnish the student with sugges-
tions in colouring enough to last a lifetime. In this connection,
however, it is well to remember that the horticulturist and
nature are not synonymous terms. Many of the combinations
that emanate from the hot-house are properly speaking unnatural
abortions, though nature, even under the most adverse circum-
stances, endeavours to right matters.

Ornament. — Ornament is the second form which decoration
takes. The same principles of purpose and fitness must be allowed
to govern its application, as in the case of colour. It must be
appropriate to its object, to its method of treatment, and to ita

'250 PAINTING AND DECOKATING.

application. It must always decorate the object to which it is
applied, that is, it must make it more beautiful. The only
reliable test of good ornament is that it is necessary to the per-
fection of the object decorated. If it can be removed or done
away with, without any sense of loss, then it is clearly faulty
and unnecessary. On the other hand, if this be so, it does not
imply that no ornament is required, or that ornament is unne-
cessary, because a more fitting ornament may be a considerable
improvement. The term "overdone" is often used in respect
to ornament, and it is sometimes true, but very seldom. The
fault is usually in the type or treatment of the ornament.

Historic ornament is divided into periods or styles, and these
styles are the outcome of the surroundings, practices, and prin-
ciples of the peoples of each period ; the expression of their aims
and ideals. They are influenced by the religion and culture of
their times. The ornament of each style being governed by set
principles has a general similarity by which it can at once be
detected and described. The principal styles in ornament are
the Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Moresque, Gothic,
Renaissance, Cinque Cento, and Louis XIV. Then there are
also the Chinese, Japanese, Persian, Indian, Arabian and
Turkish. Each of these have various subdivisions — the most
important being the Renaissance, divided into Italian. French,
Dutch, and English ; the Gothic divided into three periods, early,
decorated, and perpendicular ; and the Cinque Cento divided
into Queen Anne, Flemish, and Italian. The student is recom-
mended to make himself acquainted with these styles, especially
with the Greek, Roman, Gothic, Moresque, and Renaissance.

In designing original ornament it is not essential that prece-
dent of form be followed ; it is more meritorious to originate in
harmony with the principles upon which the style in question is
based. It may be taken as a truism, that what looks well is
well. If, then, the ornament harmoniously combines with its
surroundings, it is suitable and admissible, so that, even those
who are not thoroughly conversant with the peculiarities and
features of the different styles, are capable of designing good and
appropriate ornament if they possess the necessary taste and
discrimination. The reason why a mixture of style in ornamen-
tation is offensive to the trained eye is due to the fact that it is
a mixture of principles, and not to the fact that it is a mixture
of forms, merely. This may be instanced in the following way :
— A circular-headed arch and a pointed arch do not appear to be
in harmony with each other if used in the same facade, but the
circular form will be quite harmonious if used in any other

DECORATION. 251

detail of the fa9ade, as, in a spandrel formed by the pointed arch.
A realisation of this view of style will considerably lessen the
difficulties of the painter in regard to the selection of pattern for
his ornamentation.

The knowledge of historic styles of ornament may be compared
to the knowledge of the parts of speech in grammar. They are
necessary to the student as a groundwork to correct expression
in ornament. By their acquaintance he becomes enabled, in a
measure, to place himself in the position of the artists who
designed them, and this is the truest and highest posture a
designer can assume when attempting ornament of his own con-
ception. The mode of procedure will become habitual; he will
gradually favour a particular style, or attitude, and all his work
will be tinctured by his favourite principles, so that he will
develop a style of his own, his work will assume an individuality,
and will be as characteristic of himself as his handwriting.

Conventionality in Ornament and in Colour. — Orna-
ment varies in character in accordance with the foregoing
theory. It also varies in regard to the amount of abstraction,
or conventionality given to its forms ; ranging from abstract
lines to concrete imitations of natural forms. It varies in a third
manner also — viz., in the amount of roundness or relief given to
it. The latter quality may be dismissed with the remark that
the amount of relief must be determined by the material used,
its strength and cohesion. When it is observed that a certain
amount of relief in ornament worked in a given material is easily
damaged and broken by ordinary wear, it becomes abundantly
clear that the relief is too high.

Conventionality requires more deliberate attention, but this
too may be regulated by a very few and easy laws. First, con-
ventionality must be regulated by repetition. The oftener a
pattern or flower is repeated mechanically, the less pleasing is
naturalism. The great secret of natural beauty is its infinite
variety. Take the flowers on a plant ; no two are precisely
alike, nor do they present the same view to the eye from the
different points. To reduce this law to practice, take the case of
the lily. If we paint a natural representation of the lily, we feel
bound to vary the plant in every panel that we paint ; otherwise
we are sensible of a mechanical shadowing of the original painting;
the repetition is not natural. If we design a stencil of the lily
for a door-panel decoration we conventionalise it slightly, till it
appeals to vis as ornamentation which has the lily as its suggestive
basis, and in this form we feel that it is right not only to repeat
it in both panels, but even to repeat the two halves of the same

252 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

panel equally balanced. If we put the lily as a spot pattern
over a wall, this form would, in its turn, become too natural,
and would weary us by its repetition ; and we prefer it conven-
tionalised into a jieur de lis form, which has very little of floral
suggestion left, but is ornament pure and simple (see Plate 23).

Conventionalism also extends to shading. Painting in liodit
and shade is subject to the same kind of rule. The less of
mechanical repetition we have, the more of light and shade may
be introduced ; but we must always avoid painting ornament
to represent relief in order to attempt to deceive. In the
painted ornament of the Italian Renaissance, variegated colour
is used with great judgment to correct excessive naturalism in
the shading. A single representation of a natural object may
be represented in full light and shade; the more conventional
ornament should be treated in a flat and broad manner.

Conventionalism likewise extends to colour. Take the case of
the vine. In a natural spray unrepeated, colour may be natural,
and form also ; in a conventional border of grape vine, colour
must be equally conventional; and in a purely ornamental form,
based upon the grape, the colour must be ornamental — i.e., it is
better not to represent, even by allusion, the natural colour, to a
greater degree than the associated natural form.

In the use of ornament in decoration the great necessity is to
secure contrast without discord, richness without confusion, and
correct scale.

In taking the quality of contrast first, its importance is recog-
nised as primary.

There should be, first, contrast of 'pattern ; that is, the
same description of pattern should not be used for, say, the
dado and fittings, or the wall and ceiling of a room, or for
both frieze and dado band. All-over patterns may be divided
into vertical, horizontal, flowing or scroll, square, and diamond
patterns ; and each of these may be either geometrical, conven-
tional, or natural. Border patterns are stationary, running,
wavy, zigzag, scroll, and spot, &c. The peculiar charm of each
class of pattern is enhanced by its contrast with another form.
Thus a scroll border would be better upon a geometrical paper
than a stationary one. A conventional border will be suitable
for a floral filling. A set pattern dado will harmonise best with a
free flowing filling. If the ceiling is papered with a pattern
arranged in circles, then a vertical paper for filling, and a
geometrical diamond or square pattern for dado, will all combine
to enhance the effect of each other.

Then we come to contrast of line in each particular pattern.

Plate 22.— LETTERS FOR GLASS EMBOSSING.
To fatty. 252.]

DECORATION. 253

There should be the element of combination in each. A pattern
combining curves, straight lines, both vertical and horizontal,
and diagonal lines, will be more perfect than a combination
containing less of contrast.

Then there should be contrast of interest. Some parts of
the ornamentation should be more attractive than others, to
arrest the eye, and to provide against dulness and uniformity,
just as in Nature the flower is of more attraction than the
foliage.

Last, but by no means least, there must be reserved, plain
surfaces to contrast with ornamented ones. Immediately the
larger part of the work is enriched by ornament, the maxi-
mum effect of richness is reached, and any reduction of the
remaining plain surfaces by further ornamentation will reduce
the value and effect of the ornament already applied.

The next point, richness without confusion, may be very
shortly dealt with. The secret of this quality lies in judicious
repetition and uniformity.

Scale in Ornament. — Scale is another important factor to
be studied, and a difficult one to deal with within the scope of
an elementary chapter. The selection of one pattern of given
scale must be taken as determining the scale for the whole
work in hand. Thus, if a frieze of natural sized poppies were
decided upon, it would be necessary to observe a natural scale
throughout the room. It would be out of scale to have a paper
representing, say, oak leaves of half their natural size below it.
Or, if a frieze were selected showing miniature trees and moun-
tains, it would be out of place to have the wall covered with
large roses or chrysanthemums. Yariation in scale might be
introduced if separated from the general scheme of decoration
by framing or borders. Thus a life-sized figure might be placed
in a panel surrounded with a border of architectural character,
upon which there might appear smaller ornamental figures.
Or, panels might contain ornament of a different scale to the
wall-paper.

Scale must be considered in the application of abstract pattern
ornament, as well as in the use of natural forms. The scale of
ornament should be larger and bolder the further it is removed
from the eye. Thus, detail upon the cornice may be less fine
than upon the door panels ; ornament upon the facade of a
building should be more detailed upon the ground floor than
upon the top storey. When, however, the decollator is dealing
with spaces within the compass of one glance of the eye, as in
the case of dado and filling, the lower pattern should not be less

254 PA1NTIXG AND nTCrOHATING.

in scale than the one immediately above it, unless it be much
more simple and severe in character.

Distribution of Ornament. — -All ornament should possess
the quality of looking finished, complete and clear at any distance
(see Plate 13). When seen from a long distance, its masses and
general distribution should be seen, complete in themselves. On
coming closer, the subsidiary lines and divisions should appear.
On a close inspection, the minuter detail should enrich the whole.
This quality is well illustrated in Nature. A simple, flower,
such as the daisy, is, at a long distance, a mere white dot.
On coming nearer, the yellow centre is observed within a ring
of white ; nearer still, the petals appear separately ; and yet
nearer, we see the yellow centre is composed of many parts, the
petals have fine veins, and, even if we use the microscope, we
find new and yet finer details.

All ornament should possess distinctness, especially that
which is seen at a distance. The ground colour will impinge
upon the ornament, when the work is at a distance from the
eye, and render it less distinct than it would appear if seen
closely.

Breadth of effect and generalisation require to be studied
in the arrangement of ornament and colour. Borders and
cornices should not be weakened by being crowded with detail;
the line of a border or band should not be broken by large
patches of ornament clotted at intervals. Wall surfaces should
not be made spotty by too distinct powderings or by marked
pattern diaperings.

The greatest consideration must be bestowed on the sub-
divisions and massing of the ornament, and when these points
are correctly decided on, they must be preserved intact and not
sacrificed to mere detail.

In designing the decoration for a panel, the general distribu-
tion of the masses of ornament and the direction of the construc-
tional main lines must be considered first ; the exact shapes and
details are of quite secondary importance.

When the decorator is in any doubt as to whether a certain
ornament is necessary or unnecessary it is usually safest to omit
it, as redundancy is a more frequent fault than restraint.

The Consideration of a Decorative Scheme.— In approach-
ing the consideration of the decoration of a room, a wall, a door,
or other object, the power of considering colour and ornamenta-
tion in combination should be cultivated, and a system of pro-
cedure by graduated stages, somewhat after the following manner,
will be found useful. The example is a dining-room. The first

DECORATION. 255

stage of consideration will take the form of a general decision
that the room is to have a prevailing hue of, say, blue, relieved
by gold colour. The next stage deals with the definite parts in
the order of their importance in effect, as follows : — Walls, deep
neutral blue with foliage pattern of greener blue, lighter than
ground; wood-work, a woody brown of a golden hue, with pattern
m relief suggestive of a carved wood effect, but not imitative ;
ceiling, moulded, with lighter wood-coloured moulds running
into cornice of same colour ; panels filled with paler blue, and a
pattern on same with a swirling cloud-like suggestion of lines ;
frieze, gold colour, with yellow and olive set pattern. The next
consideration will involve a selection of a ceiling and wall paper
to fulfil these requirements, and the adjustment of the other
details to them ; the determination of how to obtain the required
effect upon the door, say, either by filling the panels with lincrusta
or by using gesso painting ; the selection of a paper, or the
designing of a stencil for the frieze : and the selection of the
finish for wood-woi"k, whether flat or glossy. In some such way
as this, all the various details will be gradually led up to, always
keeping in mind and working to the first general propositions,
and rather sacrificing matters of detail than infringing the
general ideas started with.

Unity in the various details of a decorative scheme should
be preserved. There should be some common relationship or as-
sociation between its items. Thus, if the objects of the chase
form part of a scheme of decoration, it would be inappropriate to
introduce tame animals ; wild flowers should not be mixed up
with hothouse flowers; and the amount of variety necessary
to produce interest and contrast must be drawn from the same
sources.

All the parts of a scheme of decoration must be in due sub-
jection to the whole effect, and there should always be a centre
of interest which is led up to by the accessories, but which is
still subordinate to the whole composition. Bright colours and
specially interesting items of detail should act the part of gems
in a piece of jewellery and not absorb the attention to the
neglect of the jewel itself.

Symmetry in ornament, and especially in the disposition ol
ornament, should be studied. Like repetition, symmetrical ar-
rangement has the power of giving interest and beauty to most
uninteresting lines, and of adding beauty to the lines of beauty.
If the panel of a door be filled with an unsymmetrical design,
the reversing of it in the opposite panel will give symmetry
to the decoration as a whole. If the student will scrawl upon

256 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

a piece of paper any irregular lines in ink, and then double
the paper in such a manner as to blot a reverse impression
opposite them, the value of symmetry will be seen and
appreciated.

Fashion v. Beauty. — In the practice of decoration the
student will be met by many discouragements, none of which
are more powerful than fashion. Fashion in colour and in
style continually changes, and standards of beauty, false in
themselves, and based on ignorance and misconception, are
set up. But in all the varied moods of fashion, fitness and
truth, sincerity of purpose, and the exercise of the reason
will count for much. Men are insensibly influenced in their
opinions by moral considerations ; and the mental processes
involved in the forming of the judgment on matters aesthetic,
are so obscure that it is difficult to trace effect to cause. For
instance, we observe a fine arch, admire its curvature, but if we
analyse the process of reasoning by which we conclude that it is
beautiful, we shall discover that it is the utilitarian fitness of the
arch to bridge the stream or space that captivates our suffrages,
rather than any abstract quality. It must be remembered that
beauty is not an abstraction, but a definite quality, demonstrable,
not to be confounded with taste, which is a personal preference,
and may be accurate or inaccurate, good, bad, or indifferent.
The first quality of beauty is fitness, as has been already said.
If a piece of work is good in form, useful in purpose, and good in
quality of craftsmanship, it is beautiful in the true and only
proper sense of that term, though from various reasons some
persons may not admire it ; the usual one is that they lack the
necessary training to the perception of true beauty. There is,
however, a quality in decoration which often confuses the judg-
ment, and the lack of which will change beauty into ugliness.
The quality we refer to is harmony of combination. The
binary parts of the scheme may be beautiful in themselves, and
the abstracted portions may be beautiful in themselves, but these
do not make a beautiful whole. This is where scope for indivi-
dual preference is the widest; but even the matter of combination
is largely one of law and fitness, and if the same rules of contrast
with unity be applied in the same way as they are made to apply
to individual portions of detail, the difficulties of determination
will be largely overcome.

Laws in Decoration and Ornament. — There are some
points in decoration which require a solution, varying with
varied circumstances. The student will in his wider reading
find a large number of rules laid down as general principles,

DECORATION. 257

which have evidently been freely broken by the great masters of
design. Many ol these are codified in the Grammar of Ornament,
by Owen Jones, and, in the majority of instances, they may be
accepted as offering correct guidance, but this is not always so.

The rules for outlines to ornament are particularly dogmatic
in this masterly work, but cannot be taken as applicable to
ordinary decorative work. In relation to this question, the
effect must justify the amount of labour expended. An un-
flinching application of the rules would often produce an ex-
cessive hardness and mechanical precision, which is not to be
tolerated in the artistic home.

Constructive decoration is another subject on which un-
alterable rules are quite inadmissible. As a general principle,
decoration should not be constructed, but, as a practical rule,
just so much construction must be suggested by the ornament
as is lacking in the place ornamented. It is not easy to define
what is and what is not constructive decoration. In a definite
sense, the mere use of confining Knes, such as a panel line or a
dado border, is constructive. If the decorator will avoid any-
thing approaching artificiality, and his constructive decoration
is not deceptive, but frank and sincere, he will not go far astray
in this direction. In Plate 25 the value of this constructive
decoration is shown when used in a long low room with
squarish windows. See upper part of Plate and contrast with
lower.

Decoration of detail, as the addition of patterns to mouldings,
the colouring of the background of relief decoration, and the
emphasis of relief by lightening the projections and deepening
the shadows of enrichments, have all in their turn been hastily
condemned in toto ; but there are often circumstances in which
they are quite desirable, because ornament is intended to
enrich and beautify. Here again the true touchstone is sincerity
and absence of pretence. In the decoration of mouldings, the
patterns used should serve to bring out and show up the shape
of the moulding, and not to disguise it. The addition of colour
to mouldings, in like manner, should be honest ; the projecting
members should not be coloured so as to appear as receding ones
or vice versd.

The use of gold and metals in decoration calls for a word of
warning. Vulgarity and parade are readily suggested, not by
the too free use, but by the misuse of gilding. A room may be
wholly gilt without appearing to be overdone, if the details are
of a character to warrant the treatment. It should always be
remembered that you are using metal, and not paint, and that

258 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

therefore it should be applied to those parts that might reason-
ably suggest a metallic construction. It must not be applied as
paint. Enrichments hatched up in the high lights with gilding
transgress this rule. The use of gold in arabesque painting to
express the points of light is also absurd, though frequently so
cleverly done by continental artists as to attract admiration.
The metals should not be used in such a way as to suggest their
thinness, but to suggest strength, durability, enrichment, and
elaboration, indeed any of the qualities that we associate with
the precious metals in their ordinary form. Patterns for gilding
should be of such a character as to suggest as little of the brush
as possible, unless in cases where, as in Japanese lacquer work,
the obvious intention is to show brush-applied metallic paint.
This is not the case in leaf gilding.

In gilding any portion of a cornice, a suggestion may be taken
from the application of ormolu metal work enrichments in
cabinet work. Those mouldings or enrichments should be gilded
wholly, or picked out in parts which might represent applied
metal, as, for instance, the eggs, in an egg and tongue enrichment,
or the background in a fret arabesque ; or the pattern in the
same upon a ground of colour. It would be absurd to gild por-
tions of these as if the gold had been painted on the parts most
easily got at.

In gilding parts of a door or wood-work panel the same rule
applies. The panel might be treated as a metal panel with a
painted ornament thereon, or a wood panel with painted orna-
ment outlined with a gold wire or line as in Cloisonne enamel
work, or as an inlay of gold or silver on a wood panel, or there
might be a suggestion of plaques of gold inlaid to receive
special portions of ornament. All these treatments are what
may be termed metallic in their suggestion, and evidence good
taste. On the other hand, an arabesque painted in colour upon
a coloured ground with gold flecks intended to represent the
high lights of the ornament is vulgar in conception and bad in
taste.

The various illustrations and headlines in this book show
better than words the writer's principles of ornament ; attention
is specially called to the headline of chapters on pp. 49, 70, 196,
246, 283, 297, and 300, and to the Plates numbered 2, 5, 11, 12,
13, 14, 18, 26, and 28, as giving a true direction in which work
should trend when of a general character and style.

Plates 3, 4, and 9 show the furthest point to which it is
desirable to carry naturalism, and these panels are not intended
for natural light and shade, or naturalesque colouring, hut

to \\

\-J>

■Irs

Plate 23.- DEGREES OF CONVENTIONALITY IN FLORAL DESIGN.
To face p. 258. J

DECORATION. 259

rather for a suggestive colouring laid on flatly and assisted
by outlines. The rose panel in brownish crimson flowers,
rich olive leaves, brown stems, and gold ground glazed low tone
with bitumen, would make a charming decorative panel. The
lilies would come out well in white of a creamy tone, golden
leaves and centres to flowers, and pale brown outlines on an
amber ground.

>f,0

CHAPTER XIX.

(csxap0t&z^4Z&g^&&&&&^*zgcsc

%J^j^^^^u^^^j^m^^J^^m^s^3^mo^i>

situation of the work.

HE utility of distemper as a ground
for decoration Las been already
alluded to, The qualities peculiar
to it are an absence of gloss and a
clearness and luminosity of tint. A
further advantage is that it dries
rapidly and can be worked quickly
and broadly. The desirability or
otherwise of using distemper as a
ground for elaborate work must be
determined by the position and
Work of a temporary character may
always be done in distemper; and work of a more or less per-
manent character is safe, if the situation is a dry one, removed
from reach, and the .surrounding atmosphere clean. Most of the
processes used in decorating in distemper are also applicable to
oil paint. It will be convenient to describe them fully in the
present chapter and merely refer to them later.

Sketch Designs. — The mode of operation usually followed
is to first prepai'e a small sketch of the ceiling, wall, or other
subject, drawn to a small scale of from \ inch to \\ inches to the
foot. The |-inch scale and 1^-inch scale are the most convenient
for working out from, as in these scales j\ and ^ of an inch
respectively represent 1 inch, and the details may readily he
scaled off with the ordinary 2-foot rule. This small sketch is

DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 261

coloured and the ornament designed upon it and also coloured.
All the details are merely indicated so as to obtain a general
effect of the whole when complete. The gi'ounds are next pre-
pared, the colours being copied from the sketch design, and per-
haps modified to suit their individual positions. All the main
subdivisions of the ornamental setting out are then put in, the
lines are struck with a chalk or charcoal line ; charcoal shows up
most clearly, and dusts off cleanly and easily; indeed more
easily than does chalk upon a distemper ground.

Setting out Ornament. — A knowledge of elementary geom-
etry is necessary for the plainest of setting out. Ignorance of
geometrical principles is often responsible for a great waste of
time and trouble. For the setting out, the operator will require
a 2-foot rule, a pair of 2-foot wooden compasses, a chalk line, a
loose ball of twine, and a few tacks and needle points, some soft
vine charcoal and chalk, two or three straight edges of light pine
or deal, and a set square or two, also of light weight, a spirit level
and a plumb line. The 2-foot rule should be a four-fold one ; the
compasses should have a thumb-screw head to tighten it up as a
gauge. A good chalk line may be made from a disused small tape
measure. The cord is wound round the drum of the measure,
and the outside space filled in with powdered charcoal, a small
hole is left for the cord to work in, and a small picture ring
sharpened to a point, so that it may be pushed into the wall or
wood-work, is fixed to the end of the cord. Two of these, one
for chalk and the other for charcoal, are very handy. The
straight-edges should be bevelled on one side to a thin edge.
One of the set squares should show an angle of 60°, and the
other of 45°, and the latter may be marked out as a protractor
to facilitate the subdivision of circles. The plumb bob should be
conical in form with a flat base so that it may not be dropping
about, but can be set down on the plank or on ledges. The
chalk sold for school blackboard use is good for setting out, and
the charcoal should be of a soft black kind that will not scratch.

The full size spaces for the ornament must now be measured
and set down on paper. Wide 60-inch cartoon or web paper is
generally used for the purpose, but many artists have their own
special methods. A very good plan is to use a black or white
board for setting out large pieces of ornament, and to trace them
from the board on to thin " detail " paper, making the necessary
conections and alterations in the process of tracing off. All
ornament will be either stencilled or painted by hand. If the
former is the case, the fact must be taken into consideration
when designing the pattern, so that it may be of suitable character

^02 PAINTING AND IXBG'UKATIN«.

for repeating in this mechanical manner, and care must be taken
that the necessary provisions are made for ties to keep the stencil
firm and whole. If a number of these ties have to be made good
after the stencilling has been done, the cost of the work will be
enhanced, and no good result obtained by the increased cost. Our
illustrations show how the ties may be formed of natural breaks
in the continuous lines of the pattern, and how the pattern may
be held together by allowing the lines to cross each other at
sufficient intervals.

Drawings that are made; in charcoal sometimes require pi'c-
serving, as they very readily smear. The steam from the spout
of a kettle will suffice to hold them slightly, but a spray diffuser
with a little thin methylated finish is a better and more reliable
method. For high-class drawings a special spray is sold by
artists' colourmen.

Preparing Stencil Plates. — The stencil pattern may be
drawn directly upon the paper that the pattern is to be cut out
of. It may be drawn upon cartoon paper or a board, and then
traced or transferred to the stencil paper, or it may be drawn
on thin paper, and transferred through by the aid of carbonised
copying paper.

Stencils are cut from many kinds of paper. The Willesden
paper is much used for the purpose, but ordinary stout drawing
paper is preferable for general use. This may be well oiled with
boiled linseed oil until it becomes transparent ; it can then be
used as tracing paper and the design traced directly upon it ;
or it may be coated with knotting after the drawing has been
transferred to it, then cut, and finally again knotted with the
patent shellac knotting. For stencils to be used upon small
mouldings tin foil makes a good material. For ceiling stencils
and large work, a good cardboard oiled or knotted is the best.
If the pattern is a repeat of one unit (see Plate 26), the unit
may be drawn and carefully cut, and the repeats stencilled from
it. By this means greater exactness results, than from tracing
each pattern down separately. In cutting an equally balanced
reverse pattern, the individual pieces can be laid down and
cut or marked round so that the two sides are perfectly balanced.
In making a stencil set of two or more plates for different
colours, a full stencil should first be cut as a guide, and the
others stencilled from it. This guide may be cut in thin paper
coated with knotting.

When setting out one side of a pattern that has to be reversed
it may be drawn in charcoal ; a rubbing can then be taken of the
reverse by simply doubling the paper down the centre, and the

DECORATION IN DISTEMPER.

263

completed pattern will be seen and its effect judged, and any
alteration made before putting the whole in in colour.

Stencils are usually cut upon a piece of glass ; plate glass, on
account of its level surface, is better than sheet glass. A knife
or graver is used for the cutting. The writer prefers an ordinary
pocket knife with the small blade sharpened to an angle point
upon the edge (see sketch, Fig. 80). .If the decorator once finds
a knife handle that thoroughly suits his
grip, he can have new blades fitted to it
at a very slight cost as the old ones wear
down. Punches are used for dots by
most workmen, and in some cases shaped
punches and gouges for particular shapes.
The writer prefers all cutting to be
done freehand with the knife, as a less
mechanical result is obtained, and the
character of the edge of the pattern is
the same all through when the knife is
used. The punch always leaves a certain
amount of burr and this somewhat raises
the stencil from its ground. The knife
must be frequently sharpened and kept
keen, and if the blade is slightly greasy
it will travel more smoothly round
curves, &c. The worker should accustom
himself to cut all straight and curved
lines freehand, without any adventitious
aids such as straight-edges or compasses,
but the work must all be carefully set out by geometrical
methods first.

The following is the routine of stencil preparation as followed
by the writer. The pattern is set out upon any cheap lining
or other paper in charcoal or pencil. Oiled cartridge paper is
then laid over it. This should be oiled with raw oil and kept
in stock, either in rolls or sheets. Well saturate it with oil
overnight, and wipe off the superfluous oil next morning ■ then
put aside for future use. If required within a week, use boiled
oil instead of raw. The pattern is then traced upon the oiled
cartridge, through which it should be clearly seen, with a hard
black pencil. The pattern is then cut out, using plate glass
to cut upon, and a pocket knife or pen knife for cutting with.
Next a coat of patent knotting is applied, and the pattern is
then ready for use.

Preparing Pounces. — If the work is to be done by hand, the

Fij

. SO. —Pen-knife ground
for stencil cutting.

264 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

design or sketch must be transferred to the wall or ceiling. The
best method is to rub the back of the drawing with red ochre or
red chalk, and trace it down by laying the drawing in its correct
position and going firmly over the lines with a hard stylus or
pencil. Another method, and a preferable one when it is desired
to repeat the same design more than once, is to prick the draw-
ing all along its outlines with pin holes, to form what is termed
a pounce, through the holes in which powdered black or red is
dusted, leaving upon the work a clear dotted outline.

The pounce is pricked by laying the drawing upon a table
covered with a piece of baize or cloth, and puncturing the holes
closely together along the lines with a needle point set in a
handle. The fineness of the work must regulate the size of the
needle and the closeness of the holes, but the smaller and closer
they are the easier it will be to work over the lines. A re-
peated reverse drawing may be pricked through both halves
at once by doubling the paper, or a pattern in which the quarter
is repeated four times may be folded so as to allow all four
thicknesses to be pricked at once. After the pounce has been
pricked, the burr left by the puncturing upon the back of the
pounce should be removed by glass paper lightly rubbed over
the lines. Any heavy pressure will fill up the holes. Some-
times the burr may be removed by holding the drawing over
a flame. The pounce is used by placing it in position, and
dusting through the holes red, black, or on a dark ground,
white powder. The powder is tied up in a cambric or linen bag,
about 2 inches across; whiting, charcoal dust, and Venetian
red, or admixtures of these are used for pouncing. A good
pouncer for small work is made as follows : — A piece of baize
is covered with whiting or black lead, well rubbed in ; it is
then rolled up tightly and tied round the middle with string,
and the ends used by brushing over the pattern with a circular
motion. This article may be charged at one end with white,
and at the other with black. As the powder becomes exhausted,
a clean slice may be cut off the end of the roll and fresh fully
charged surface exposed for use. For a large coarse pounce it
will be found sufficient to rub a dry sash tool in dry colour, and
dust it over the lines. In some cases it will be possible to
sketch in the detail directly upon the work itself. Charcoal
or chalk are used for the purpose. Charcoal is liable to work
into the colours used in painting, and mar their purity.

The Use of Stencils. — In using the stencil upon distemper,
the stencil tools must be kept well charged with colour, and
care be taken to avoid the colour running under the pattern.

DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 265

The cleanest result is obtained by dabbing the stencil tool ; any
attempt at a rubbing motion is likely to produce imperfect work.
Stencilling can be done in an effective manner upon distemper
by the use of a very fine sponge instead of a brush. The broken
effects of colour obtained by this method are artistic and accord
well with the style of ornament now much in vogue, in which
natural forms are prominent features.

Stencil pins (Fig. 81) will be required to keep the stencil
plates and pounces in correct position while being used. These
may be home made or can be obtained at little cost from the
brush manufacturers.

Fig. 81.— Stencil pin.

A needle set in a cotton reel and wedged in with wooden pegs
is a fairly good substitute, and quickly made.

In stencilling upon a distemper ground, the best colour to use
is made as follows : — Dry colour, ground stout in turpentine,
thin with equal parts of turps and hard quick drying varnish or
japanners' gold size.

Lining and Picking Out.— For lining upon distemper, a
thin colour made from dry colour, water, a little gum,
and a little glycerine, will be found to work well. Colours
ground in milk, in beer, and in sugar and water all work
fairly well in distemper. For painting in light and shade,
preference may be given to size colour as best possessing
the qualities desirable for the purpose. The work should be
done with long hog-hair fitches, and the colour laid on without
any rubbing or mixing, which would soften and work up the
ground. Any tendency to ciss or work frothy may be corrected
by the use of a very little yellow soap in the distemper. This

811
Fig. 82.— Quilled or fine tools.

will further allow of painting over without working up. The
use of soap, is, however, distinctly prejudicial to delicate colours,
and should only be resorted to when found absolutely necessary.
The tools known as veining tools (used in marbling) are very
useful for distemper painting when lining or outlining in long
broad lines, as they hold a large quantity of colour. Quilled tools

266

PA1NTINU AND DE< UKATINO.

( Fig. 82) are also particularly useful for similar work. So much
depends upon the fitness of a brush for a particular kind of
work, that students are recommended to experiment and dis-
cover for themselves the brushes which appear to best suit
particular work. The investment in a red sable swan quill
(Fig. 83), costing half a guinea, once saved a decorator quite a

Fig. S3. — Sable writers.

week of labour, in a case where at first glance such expenditure
appeared to be quite uncalled for. It is only by an intimate
knowledge of all classes of tools that they can thus be used at
the right time and to the best advantage. An ingenious man
with this knowledge can often rig up tools and brushes of his
own fashioning, which make his progress in the work rapid and
easy compared with what it would be with the use of the
orthodox tools.

A great deal of the decorative work in distemper will consist of
the colouring in, or "picking out," of mouldings and enrichments.
In this work it is desirable to carefully think out the best
method of time and labour-saving. A general rule is to lay in
the receding portions of the work with the deeper tints first.
Any spotting or smearing of the prominent members can then
be sponged off easily. For the background of ornament, stiff
hog-hair brushes will be found the best if the ornament is open
and undercut. In the case of a low relief enrichment it will
generally be found more expeditious to put in the whole of the
work in the light relief colour, and then lay in the deeper back-
ground with a soft camel-hair brush. Camel-hair swan quills

DECORATION IN DISTEMPER.

267

(Fig. 84) will be found the best for laying in beads and fillets, as
they deposit a fuller coat of colour, and leave a better body than
the harsher hog-hair, which generally leaves such members bare
and unevenly covered. Quirks between beads or fillets are best
run in with thin beer or sugar colour, or with spirit colour and
a lining fitch. A special make of lining fitch for fine decoration

Fig. 84. — Camel-hair swan pencils.

is made of the best Lyons hair by Messrs. Robertson, of Long
Acre. They are in form precisely like a rather thin hog-hair
fitch of good quality, but bevelled to a convenient angle for
lining. For quirks, a fine square-topped flat fitch is as good as
any tool that can be used for the purpose ; it must be held at
right angles with the work.

Lines should always be run and not stencilled. A little
practice makes lining easy, and it is quite impossible to obtain
a true line by stencilling.

The following method will be found applicable to distemper
lining on a ceiling : — The lines must be struck on one edge only,
if less than f of an inch in breadth ; or on both, if more than that
breadth, by a fine chalk line of twine or finest whip cord.
Crochet cotton makes a good line, but soon wears ont. The
superfluous chalk should be blown or lightly dusted off with a
badger. The colour should be fluid but not watery. Heavy
colours as vermilion should be avoided when possible, but, if
used, must be. constantly stirred. Spirit, gum, or glycerine
colour are preferable for dark colours. Size colour may be used
for light ones with a little alum in it to break the gelatine; or
sugar colour may be substituted. The quantity of sugar,
glycerine, &c, must not be such as too greatly .to arrest drying,
or to interfere with the requisite absence of gloss. A good soft
long-haired lining fitch, an ordinary flat fitch, a veining or
quilled tool, or a French distemper tool, may be used, the par-
ticular colour and work determining which of these will best

268

FAINTING AND DKCOKATINQ.

fullil the oihce. A light pine straight-edge of 30 inches in length
to 42 inches, according to a man's height and consequent reach;
U inches wide, and -^ of an inch thick, bevelled | of an inch
back and through half its thickness, will be found the best. It

Fig. 85. — Short table pencils.

Fie. S6. — Sable liners or tracers.

should have a coat of knotting so that it can be readily sponged
off. Three half corks — viz., sound bottle corks cut in half, Length*
wise — should be glued on the bevelled side, the flat side of the
half cork toward the straight-edge: one near each end and one

Plate 24. -INFLUENCE OF PATTERN UPON COLOUR EFFECT.
To fact p. 263.]

DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 269

in the middle, so that the straight-edge will be bridged upon the
corks and not rest upon the work. For broad lines these corks
may be larger than ordinary, so as to keep the straight-edge an
inch away from the ceiling ; in ordinary cases ^ inch is sufficient.
The lining fitch must now be well filled with colour, the straight-
edge adjusted about an eighth or less over the edge of the pro-
posed line, and the brush, being held by the point of the stick
at right angles to the strai^ht-ed^e and at an angle of 70° to the
work, drawn surely and firmly, but very lightly, from left to
right. In distemper lining it is necessary, in consequence of the
absorbent ground, to run the lines more slowly than in paint.
For convenience, the colour should be slung to the waist-band,
or hooked on to the breast button-hole of the blouse. A measure
similar to those used for measuring out small quantities of milk,
may be used to contain the lining colour, or a tin canister, with
a hook soldered to its side, will answer the purpose.

For painted ornament, as scene painting, a tray palette having
holes for several colours, and a water dipper, and partition for
brushes, is useful. It should be slung round the neck by a strap
with adjustment to keep it level, so thit both hands are free, as
it will be frequently desirable to use the straight-edge or mahl
stick in the left hand, and a full distemper palette is too heavy
to hold on the thumb.

For monochrome or any painting requiring three or four
colours only, a little shallow paint-can may be subdivided by tin
I artitions into three or four compartments, and held in the left
hand, or suspended round the waist.

Outlining may be accomplished upon a wall or on canvases
very rapidly and effectively in distemper, by the use of designers'
short sable pencils and no mahl stick, allowing the wrist to rest
lightly upon the work as in water colour painting, &c; or upon
the ceiling, by the use of a light bridge-rest.

Transparent colours may be used in distemper to obtain
luminous effects, by mixing the colours with size only. Thus
wood beams, in a piece of scenic painting, are better imitated by
using Sienna and Vandyke brown in size, than by the use of body
colours. In ordinary distemper decoration the use of these
colours is little appreciated, and a field in that direction is open
to the decorative artist. Of course, absolute deadness of
surface is not possible to, or consistent with, the use of trans-
parent colouring. Former^, transparent size colouring was
much used upon linen and cambric or muslin blinds and cur-
tains, as a substitute for obscured glass.

Stencil plates when used in distemper are apt to buckle, swell,

270 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

or stretch, and become useless. This should be prevented by well
knotting them, and at evening when left for the night a coat of
paint may be given to them. In cleaning them, do not allow them
to soak unnecessarily, but dry quickly with common blottingpaper
or a chamois leather, so that the water has no time to soak in.

All stencils and pounces should be so cut and marked at the
edges as to be readily placed in position without a lot of measur-
ing, or marking upon the work. Centre lines should be shown in
all directions on the face of the stencil, and the stencil where
possible, even if it only occupies a comparatively small area,
should be cut the size of the panel, or at least so that it fits
exactly into one or two angles. For borders, the stencil plate
should either be cut the exact width of the border or, if this be
too close to the openings of the pattern, it should be notched to
the exact width of the border at both ends. Attention to these
points will save trouble, annoyance, confusion, and loss of time
on the work itself.

In working upon distemper grounds great care must be taken
that the work is not rubbed, or the surface will be disturbed and
a slight gloss imparted to it.

Stencil plates after use should always be packed or put away
with sheets of plain paper between them to prevent the points of
one pattern becoming entangled in another.

Gold, or gold paint, may be used upon a distemper ground.
For mouldings and lines, a mixture of the best bronze powder
in knotting thinned with naphtha or methylated spirit will work
well and keep its colour. Ardenbrite may also be used for this
purpose. For stencilling, the bronze may be mixed with milk
and a little gum, or with white wax and turpentine with a little
oak varnish added. Flatting varnish is used for the purpose by
some artists, but gives a dulness to the metal. White wax and
turpentine will, when set, take a polish, and a little additiona.
bronze may be dusted on to its surface and rubbed in. The
bronze must be of the best quality.

For gilding on distemper, japanners' gold size thickened with
a little resin is the best medium.

If there is enough size in the distemper ground this should not
run. If it does, the spaces to be gilded must be first sized over
with a little clear size. Apply the gold leaf in the ordinary manner.

In mixing the various tints for decoration in distemper, it is
well to work from a base of cream colour or other pale tint
approximating to the colour of the ground of the ceiling rather
than from crude white. For all particulars as to colours the
reader is referred to Colour mixing.

271

CHAPTER XX.

®\|OST of the decorative processes used in
distemper are equally applicable to
paint. These will be merely referred
to in the present chapter as the reader
will find the details in the preceding
chapter.

The differences that are most im-
portant in the two forms of work, at
least to the worker, are that the ground
for painted work is non-porous ; that the colours will keep open
and free longer, and allow of more finished manipulation ; that,
when once dry, they can be re-painted or re touched, or glazed
over without difficulty ; and that various degrees of gloss or dul-
ness may be produced upon the surface at will. It must also be
remembered that painted decoration is washable and durable in
our moist and not over-clean atmosphere, and that the colours
can be used in various degrees of body or solidity, and are less
heavy and solid than distemper. Other slighter differences will
be manifest as the use of paint in decoration is described.
. Stencilling in Paint. — Stencilling is largely used as a means
of executing painted decoration. The proper functions of the

272 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

process have already been dealt with, and the preparation of
stencil plates has also received some attention. In the use of
stencilling upon painted work the decorator will find it much
more cleanly and less laborious to stencil dark colours upon a
light ground than vice versa. For this reason, it is often econo-
mical to stencil-in the background of a pattern and leave the
pattern in the lighter colour of the ground. By the use of this
process it is possible to have a solid light colour pattern on a
dark ground, in a case where, if the pattern were stencilled in
light colour upon a dark ground, it would not cover and look
solid, and even if it did so at the time, the deep colour would
soon find its way through the one coat of white or light colour
that had been stencilled over it. A more finely finished job is
also obtained by the use of the deeper colour as the stencil,
because there is little body and much covering power in the
deeper pigments, and they may be used thinner and applied more
barely than could be done when using a light colour for the
stencilling.

Additional care must be bestowed on a stencil intended for
paint in the arrangement of the ties ; because it is almost impos-
sible to touch up ties in a painted stencil with a pencil or fitch
in such a manner that they will not show.

Glaze colours and partially transparent colours can be used
with good effect and great ease in painted work. They should
be mixed with a little varnish, oil, and turpentine, equal parts
of each, to work and look well. Stencils to be used in glaze
colours must be designed so that there are no ties to make good
afterwards ; they cannot be touched up without looking patchy.
It is by far the best plan to so arrange the design that in all
cases where the stencilled pattern is to be left as a finish, the
ties are incorporated in the design.

Stencil plates used in paint, especially when used in light
colours, need frequent cleaning or they become furred up and
sticky. To clean them, lay them upon a board covered with old
paper, and with a sash tool or old stencil tool dipped in turps
wash the paint off — the paper will absorb a part of the dirty
turpentine. Then, with a soft rag, sop up the turpentine, and
finish by carefully wiping with a clean rag. A coat of knotting
should be given overnight and at meal times if the stencil is to
have much use.

The capability of the stencil as a factor in painted decoration
is far greater than many writers are disposed to admit. Indeed,
the possibilities of the method are far from exhausted and are
oidy limited by the patience and resource of the decorator.

PAINTED DECORATION. 273

The mere repetition of an item of ornament as in a border or
corner is only an infantile stage of the stencil development,
though a useful one. Carefully executed elaborated stencilling
in several colours and in two or three coats, are far more artistic
than slap-dash hand-painted ornament, and possess a separate
and individual character. Many quaint and pleasing effects of
colour and manipulation may be obtained, which are not merely
equal in appearance to hand-painted work, but which cannot be
accomplished by hand.

In the actual stencilling on a painted ground, the brushes used
must be dry and firm, the motion used, a stippling one ; and the
colour used sparingly. A palette should be used on which the
brush can Le beaten out so as to equally distribute the colour
taken up. The colour should be spread out upon the palette ; the
brush should never be dipped into the can of colour, but a fitch
should be used to take out a little at a time on to the palette.
Take a moderate amount of colour in the brush at a time and
gently disperse it over the stencil equally. Then go over it
again and spread and distribute the colour already laid on. The
colour must not be too thin or it will work under the stencil.

The following suggestions for the treatment of stencilling will
serve to illustrate its capability : —

Glaze colours may be used on a light ground, on a medium
ground, or on a deep ground, and great richness maybe obtained
by their use. Two-coat stencilling may be used in the following
wajs : — A glaze stencil over a colour, or a glaze stencil over
shaded stencilling; a glaze of different colours intermixed over
a plain tint first stencil ; a shaded and blended glaze over a
shaded first coat; shaded blendings over gold, bronze, silver,
aluminium, &c. ; partial glazes and semi-transparent colours over
the same. The two coats may be put on over the same register,
or an edge of the first coat may be left visible. Portions of a
stencil may be toned, glazed, or enriched by washes of colour
applied with a brush after the stencilling is dry. Very effective
work can be done by stencilling the work, once partly in gold or
metal, and partly in bright colour; and then stencilling a second
coat in colour only of a transparent nature.

Hand-painted. Ornament. — Hand-painted ornament varies
greatly in its character and class, from simple flat ornament in
one colour upon a ground of another colour, to the most elabor-
ate work in light and shade. For all alike a pounce must be
made, or the ornament drawn directly in position upon the
work. These methods have been already described. The
superfluous chalk or charcoal should be dusted off or the colour

274 PAINTING AND DECOUATINO.

is apt to run. Sable pencils, writers, are the best for use for the
liner work, while bolder work may be put in with hog-hair
brushes or camel-hair swan quill pencils. The panel illustrated
in Plate 1 is a suitable design for putting in one flat tint on a
ground of a different tone or colour. The panel illustrated in
Plate 5 is designed for flat treatment in conventional colours
suggested by natural colouring, and would be carried out as
follows : — The ground would be prepared and flatted. The
pattern pounced upon it. The tints are laid in with a swan
quill, each leaf all one flat colour ; stems the same but just
shaded with the leaf at its base ; fruit all one flat tone ;
flowers the same. When these were dry, the whole would be
outlined in colour or, perhaps, in gold.

A more advanced form of decoration is shown in Plate 11.
Here the colouring might be in monochrome, but the ornament
is intended to be worked on light and shade. Suppose that the
ground is gold and the ornament is to be in tones of turquoise
blue, the ground having been clear sized, as all gold should be
before being worked upon, the pattern will be pounced upon it.
Three or more shades of the blue are now prepared on the
palette, the lighter one being the brightest and the deeper the
quietest in tone. The deep colour is used first and the shadows
laid in, using the colour very sparingly indeed. Then the next
lightest colour is used, and next the third; and, finally, the
highest lights are put in with a fully loaded brush, using more
colour each tint, and each time blending the colour in use into
that last put in. Short sable brushes should be used, similar to
those used for water colour sketches, if for small work. For
lai-ger work the ordinary hog-hair fitches are admirable.

The sketches represented in Plates 3, 4, and 9 are for a still more
advanced class of painted ornament, and will be managed in the
same way as the last, but the colours instead of being mixed will
be set on the palette directly from the tubes, and each colour made
up with the palette knife as required — the same routine of shadows
first, middle tones to follow, and high lights last, will be ob-
served ; as in this case it is intended to paint in the background
as well as the ornament, our firs': attention will be given to that
part of the work. In this class of painting when the work is not
close to the eye, considerable roughness may be indulged in with
good effect; and colours may be put upon the work only partially
intermingled, producing a richness and luminosity not obtainable
by highly finished and blended work. Do not thin the colours.

Whenever possible, painted decoration should be executed in
position; but it is often desirable to work upon canvas in the

PAINTED DECORATION. 275

shop, and afterwards fix up the canvas. When this is the case
the work will require to be very carefully considered, or the
effect in position will be disappointing. It should be tacked up
to a wall or easel for working, so that the proper effect can be
obtained as the work progresses.

When gold forms any part of a decorative panel it should be
used first, and the colours added afterwards. This prevents any
danger of the gold sticking to the other parts of the work, and
results in a clean sharp job.

Painted ornament is sometimes done in light and shade by
glazes. This method is rapid, and consequently cheap and very
effective. The work is laid in in a fiat tint and allowed to dry.
The shadows are then glazed in, and the work finally outlined
with a sharp strong outline. Sepia, Vandyke brown, or Umber
may be used for the shadows. Sometimes the design is first
outlined, and the colours, whether flat or in light and shade, are
glazed in.

Painted decorations upon flatting may be done to show the
same surface as its ground, by the use of turpentine and white
wax as a medium, or by the use of Roberson's medium.

Fresco work may be executed in a very durable manner upon
plastered surfaces, by the use of a medium composed of turpen-
tine, white wax, and a little white resin.

The practice of flower painting is recommended as good train-
ing for the decorative painter, both in the production of purity,
and brilliant harmony of colour and manipulative dexterity. A
close study of flower and plant forms is also the best equipment
for the decorative designer.

Decoration upon silk in oil paint is best done on a preparatory
sizing of the surface actually to be painted upon only.

Painting upon velvet or plush can be done by using tube
colours very stout, thick, and free from oil, and stiff short
brushes, those known as "brights," hog-hair brushes being the
best kind for this work.

The running of lines in paint is done in the same manner as
described for distemper, but an ordinary hog-hair fitch or a lining
fitch is the best tool for the purpose. The colour must be finely
ground and thin, and the pressure on the brush very light.
Sable liners are used for fine lines, especially in carriage painting
and upon panels. They require thin colour and a considerable
amount of experience. Lines run in this way are, when well
done, superior in appeai'ance, more regular and solid than lines
run with hog-hair brushes, and for wood-work they are preferable.
The remarks on the use of pencils, and much that has been

276 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

written in the chapter on sign-writing, apply to decorative
painting.

In the use of the stencil it will frequently be found necessary
to fix it to the work. This is best done in the case of painted
work by fine needle points or stencil pins, not drawing pins,
which make too large a hole in the work.

To prevent brittle needle points snapping off", they may be
heated in an old iron shovel and allowed to cool slowly.

It is often desirable to save for next day's use small bits of
colour that, if left in the pot or on the palette, would dry up and
be wasted, often necessitating the re-matching of them. They
can be kept ready for use by putting in a saucer or on a piece of
glass, and standing under water.

Contrasts of Gloss and Flatting. — The facility that the
worker in paint has of contrasting glossy and flat or dead colours,
as in the case of a glossy pattern upon a dead ground, or a glossy
outline to dead patterns, should be borne in mind and turned to
effective account. In panel or wall decoration good effects are
often obtained by varying the flat and even colour of the ground
of the work, either regularly gradating it, or combing, dabbing,
mottling, or stippling it.

A still more beautiful result can be obtained by roughing the
ground with a paste of plaster and size, or other medium, and
combing, stippling, &c, thus producing a texture ground upon
which to decorate. The ground thus prepared can be scumbled
and rubbed to add to the effectiveness. Alabastine is a good
material to use for the purpose of producing the relief.

For stencilling that has to be gilded, oil gold size is the best
to use. A good decorative ground can be produced by sanding
the stencil after it has been put in, allowing it to dry, and then
painting and gilding the whole so as to show a rough sanded
gold pattern on a plain smooth gold ground.

Sawdust has been effectually used for the same purpose, but
the paint must be heavily put on and the sawdust allowed to
harden on it before attempting to work upon it.

A useful foi*rn of decoration is illustrated in Plate 30, showing
a stencil used to cover the joints of plain or ingrain paper. This
is a most effective treatment when carried out in a large room.
The breadths must be centred to each flank of wall.

277

CHAPTER XXI,

ELIEF decoration may be described as pattern
projecting from its ground. Decorative
materials in relief are now so important a
feature in modern work that the subject of
their treatment in colour must necessarily
occupy a little attention. The use of texture
grounds, as heavy stippling and combing,
has already been mentioned. It remains
to be shown that this use of gesso is elemen-
tary, and that far more elaborate treatment
is possible, and within the capacity of any
painter who has a slight knowledge of draw-
Patterns of simple form can be readily worked in the
irial, directly upon the wall, having a depth of from \ inch
inch. By the use of wooden combs various patterns can be
incised. These may be varied by using graining combs with
some of the teeth removed. Modelling tools and sticks may also
be found of service. Suction action gives some good results, and
various materials will give varying grades of stipple. A piece
of Brussels carpet fixed on a block of wood will prove a very
serviceable stippler. A coarser one may be formed of rough
deal board, while a tin canister lid will give a class of surface
unlike anything else and very pleading in effect, resulting in a
stalactite-like appearance.

to |

278 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Gesso and its Treatment. — Many interesting effects can be

obtained by the utilisation of stencil plates of metal or stout
millboard, the gesso being heavily modelled over the stencil
plate, which is then removed, leaving a sharp edge to the relief.
An amount of after finishing or modelling can be added. The
immense advantage of a material of this kind in the hands of a
capable decorator, over the mechanically repeated patterns that
are made by the piece is at once apparent. Individuality of
treatment, both for the position and the character of the work,
can be secured with ease. For staircases, friezes, and positions
where there is diversity of space the use of hand modelled work
is particularly desirable. The best material that the writer has
used for this high relief gesso work is a mixture of plaster and
weak size, or plaster and starch, or the material known to the
trade as alabastine. The plaster used for the purpose must be
the finest flour modelling plaster, and the size should be glutinous
rather than gelatinous. For the general purposes of wall
and panel decoration this material will be found of sufficient
durability. It is of high importance that the size be not too
strong or the work is liable to crack. It is of equal importance
that the ground be an unyielding one of solid plaster; on back-
grounds of wood it is liable to chip off.

Harder ingredients than plaster are sometimes used cither as
a substitute for, or an addition to, plaster.

The following description of the method adopted in working
out the accompanying friezes (Plate 29) may be of assistance to
the experimental decorator in gesso: — -First, the necessary
quantity of plaster was mixed with thin glue size to the con-
sistency of cream, and the frieze was rapidly coated with the
mixture, and the wave line background was combed in while the
gesso was hot and wet and worked freely. The comb used was
a coarsest graining comb with every third tooth broken out leav-
ing two teeth and a space. The flowers were next added in the
following manner : — A rather short spreading sash tool was laden
heavily with the gesso, which for this stage was thickened to a
paste ; the tool was then thrust against the wall making a large,
accidentally shaped splodge of paste gesso. When the tool was
extended to its full limits by pressing hard against the wall, it
was suddenly withdrawn like a sucker, producing inimitable
undulations of an accidental form. These by further manipula-
tion on the outer edges were formed into petals, and the centre
was filled with little dots or balls of gesso put on with a fitch.
The foliage was next put in, with gesso of a little thinner con-
sistency, and manipulated chiefly with the fingers and a model-

RELIEVO DECORATION. 279

ling tool of boxwood, and finally the whole was outlined and in
places etched up with chisel-pointed sticks of hard wood. The
lower border was executed with a wooden chisel-pointed comb,
the teeth being | inch wide and f inch apart. The solidity of
the work may be improved by driving a few copper tacks into
the wall to hold the highest relief firmly and prevent chipping
by contraction. The weight and tenacity may be respectively
lightened and strengthened by using cotton wool fibre satui--
ated in the gesso. So numerous are the methods by which
effects in gesso woi-k may be varied and good results obtained
that it is not necessary to particularise them, the student will
have an open mind on the subject, and press into service all
kinds of tools and other instruments.

Gesso in low relief is best done upon a non-porous ground,
with soft camel-hair brushes. The ornament is carefully coated
three or four times in succession with a mixture of finest sifted
plaster of Paris and clear glue size not too strong. A little pipe-
clay may be added to increase the smoothness and density.
Only very conventional ornament is suited to the process, orna-
ment akin to that used in slip painting upon pottery. The
ornament is usually gilded to bring the relief into prominence.

The decoration of the finished gesso work is, of course, very
similar to the treatment of other raised pattern material. The
best and most successful treatments are those suggestive of
wood, metal, faience or majolica and enamel effects. For the
latter all that is necessary is to give the work one coat of varnish
glaze, as the varnish will hold out on the gesso without
preparation.

Decoration of Relievo Materials Generally. — In decorating
the Tynecastle tapestry or vellum, Anaglypta, Cordelova, &c, the
first step is to obtain a hard and impervious surface. Upon such
materials a coat of ordinary strength size should be first applied,
next a coat of good strong varnish colour, and finally a glaze to
assist the force of the pattern. For oak effects the ground should
be deeper and quieter in tone than is used for graining upon.
The glaze should be in water colour, and should be stippled and
allowed to dry, and then the higher parts of the relief should be
wiped off with a damp chamois leather rolled into a hard wad.
Another method is to use a glaze of oil colour thinned with
turps, and to wipe off the high lights with a rag. Yet a third
method is to use the distemper glaze first, and a weak thin
varnish glaze afterwards.

Old ivory carving possesses a particularly pleasing colour effect
which may be accurately suggested by enamelling the work in a

260 PAINTING AND DKCORATUTO.

full tone of ivory white ; white tinted with raw sienna ; and
glazing in distemper with raw sienna, burnt sienna, and Van-
dyke brown in water, but not too deep. Allow it to dry and
then wipe off rather cleanly with a damp cloth.

Another good effect, and one particularly decorative without
the suggestion of imitativeness that wood colourings have, is to
pick out the different parts of the pattern in rather decided
contrasts of colour, and then scumble over the whole with a
distemper wash of burnt Umber and wipe off. The scumble
gives unity and harmony of tone to the colouring, and that
subdued effect that is the charm of old work.

Bronzes may be used in the decoration of relief ornament with
good effect — a good quality bronze is essential. It should never
be used immediately over oil paint, but a coat of varnish or
lacquer should intervene, as the oil attracting oxygen tends to
discolour the metal quickly. Varnish or Japan gold size should
be used for the purpose of attaching the bronze, which may be
dusted all over or merely touched upon the projections. The
face of the bronze must be pi'otected by a coat of lacquer. To
bronze the whole surface a mixture of japanners' gold size and
copal varnish is coated on, and allowed to become tacky. The
powder is then dusted on with a soft badger or hare's foot, and
a coat of thin lacquer finally applied. The work can then be
scumbled over to any desired tint, and very good metallic effects
can be obtained by using bluish-green water colour scumble and
wiping it off, except in the crevices.

For the more brilliant metallic effects metal leaf is better than
powder bronzes. Silver leaf gives the most brilliant result, and
will lacquer to any desired colour. Yellow metals are also good.
The better qualities stand well when lacquered, if not used upon
oil. The work is sized with a combination of varnish and boiled
oil Avith japanners' gold size, and the metal is applied cither
with the fingers or with gold-beaters' clippers or tweezers, thin
laths of bamboo formed into a kind of sugar tongs. If the
fingers are used they should be dry and clean ; and if the hands
are naturally inclined to be damp, a little French chalk may be
rubbed upon the finger tips to prevent sticking. When gilding
on the wall it is convenient to have a little tray suspended in
front of the operator, on which the gold is laid ; it can then be
taken up with one hand and pressed to the work with the other.
If both hands are not at liberty some little difficulty is experi-
enced in getting the metal in place. After the metalling has
been done the work must be dusted clean, and rubbed up to a
polish by gentle use of a little ball of wool ; cotton wool is too

kelieVo decokation. 281

soft for this purpose on metal. It should then at onee be coated
with lacquer.

The best lacquers are made from shellac and spirits of wine ;
cheaper forms from shellac and methylated spirit ; in both cases
they are coloured by the addition of various dyes. Messrs.
Mander's ready-made lacquers are strongly recommended for this
purpose. They can be had in almost every colour. The room
in which the lacquering is done must be warm, or a chilled,
milky appearance results from the coagulation of the lacquer.
Two coats are requisite. They should be applied with a large
brush of camel-hair.

If the lacquers are prepared at home, care should be taken
that the dyestuffs are permanent ; saffron, gamboge, annatto,
turmeric, dragon's blood, fustic, and red wood ; indigo and
Brazil wood are all sufficiently fast, and by intermixture will
give most tints.

In the process of imitating pottery or enamelled effects, almost
any class of work may be successfully imitated or, we would
rather say, suggested. The principal point is to obtain correct
colour, first by the use of a ground analogous to the real ground
of the material it is intended to imitate, both in colour and
porosity ; and, next, in a correct match of the glazes required.
Where a glazed treatment is desired it is best to use ordinary oil
colours thinned with varnish, as for majolica. To give the
appearance of age the work must be water scumbled with raw
umber and then wiped off partially. To imitate a crackled
effect use a spirit varnish, as white or brown hard, over a coat of
copal oil varnish, allowing a week to elapse between the two
coats, and afterwards rub the work with a dirty leather to
darken the crackle marks. These slavish imitations are not to
be recommended, and are not the best form of artistic finish to
apply to relievo work.

Purely aesthetic colour effects can be obtained by the use of
glazes over metallic surfaces and over grounds of colour, and a
very good method of producing contrasting colour effects is to
stencil in the ground of the pattern after the ornament has been
treated by glazing, &c. To do this, the stencil can be cut out of
a repeat of the actual material. It will then be sure to fit with
accuracy.

In the production of wood effects, where there are large plain
surfaces the graining comb and overgrainer may often be used in
moderation with good effect. It is quite legitimate also to pro-
duce effects for the sake of colour, that are not really possible or
likely in the wood itself. Thus there is no reason why the

282 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

ornament should not be in metal or in colours upon a woody-
coloured ground. Many of the colour effects used upon old
Cordovan leathers are quite unique and represent no suggestion
other than that of enamelled leathers, and these are quite desir-
able examples for imitation.

All the operations required for the decoration of these materials
can be best carried out before hanging, except the final scumble,
which, if done in situ, will suffice to produce an equal and pei'fectly
homogeneous whole, covering any defects in matching, and allow-
ing scope for the display of a little judgment in lightening up
dark corners and deepening prominent portions where desirable.
Much time may be saved by a careful consideration, before
commencing, of the cheapest and most expeditious method of
producing the effects aimed at.

Sgraffito.— Sgraffito work is a form of relief decoration which
may be more correctly relegated to the plasterer's domain. It is
the use of a coating of coloured plaster about g inch thick above
a ground of another colour plaster which may in its turn be
above a third colour. The different coats are applied on succes-
sive days and the pattern pounced upon the final one ; the
parts not required are then cut away with a knife and chipped
out, leaving the under ground exposed to view. For external
work cement is used instead of plaster, and the materials are
coloured by the addition of ochres, Venetian and Indian red,
black manganese or Umbers, or any colours that are unaffected
by the kind of cement used.

283

IFFICULTIES in treatment have
been experienced in earlier chap-
ters of the present work by the
writer, but in no case has the
difficulty been felt so keenly as
when trying to compress into a
few pages the present subject — a
subject that might well extend to
volumes.

Colour in Historic Decora-
tion.— The historical side of the
question must be left severely
alone, except for the mere recapitu-
lation of a few facts.
Colour was used most tastefully in the Pompeian and Greek
styles ; most gorgeously in the Moresque and Byzantine ; and
perhaps ivith least principle in the Italian Renaissance and
Mediaeval. A great wealth of colour characterises all Eastern
styles of work, notably Persian, but is counter-balanced by large
masses of uncoloured stone, wood, and plaster, and is confined
principally to articles of dress and furniture.

Theory of Colour. —The scientific side of colour must also be
dismissed in few words. Colour is one of the effects produced

284 TAINTING AND DECORATING.

by light falling upon objects. It owes its diversity to the diverse
substances on which it falls, their molecular and structural com-
position, and the amount and quality of the light absorbed or
reflected by them. A beam of light is composed of parts or rays,
divided for convenience into seven classes, called red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, violet, and purple rays. In reality it is com-
posed of an indefinite number of colours only limited in number
by the power of the visual organs to appreciate their distinctive-
ness. If the student imagines a circle divided into seven parts
and coloured as above, and each colour carefully, completely
and gradually blended into its neighbour, so that the gradation
is perfect, he will have a better understanding of the composite
quality of a beam of light. When light falls upon an object,
some of the colours composing it are absorbed by the object, and
some are reflected back to the eye. The sum of the colour rays
reflected back to the eye produce the colour of the object, and the
sum of the rays absorbed produce another colour which we call its
complementary, because the two sums added together make the
full complement necessary to complete the beam of light. If the
object does not absorb any of the rays, the colour will be white
— that is, the full complement of light. If it absorbs the whole
of the rays its colour we call black — that is, absence of light.

The colour circle (Fig- 87) is intended to bring readily to the
mind the theory of colour harmony. It is divided into sixteen
parts and named for the purpose of reference. If any colour in
the circle is taken, its complementary colour will be found
immediately opposite it, and if the two be added together they
will be found to produce the complete ray of light ; that is, they
have in their combined composition all the seven colours named
above. The interval or space between the seven colours are not
all equal, indeed the actual space occupied by a definite colour may
be said to be non-existent, as the modulation and gradation of
colour into colour is complete. The division into sixteen is a
convenient geometrical and arithmetical arrangement that assists
calculation, while, at the same time, it approximately represents
sixteen equidistant points of the spectrum.

Colour being so largely a matter of personal impression, and
being dependent on the personal vision, can with difficulty be
reduced to formula?, and no purely correct or scientific treat-
ment will wholly guide the worker. The colorific circle here
given is merely put forward as a definite basis from which to
refer to certain phases of the subject, and is not constructed
scientifically. The aspect of colour, and its intermixture, is all that
concerns the painter, as he uses pigments, or coloured matter only.

tf t ff jwWwWWW^

ft if I I J ][ I If ][ I 1

Plate 2.",. -CONSTRUCTIVE DECORATION IN APPLICATION.

To fare p. 284.]

COLOUR.

285

Colour being an impression due to the physical structure of
a substance, the effect of intermixture of one substance with
another depends upon the method and completeness of the ad-
mixture. Change of colour occurs in a substance if the form of
the substance is altered, as in the drying of a distemper colour.
The colour result of two pigments mixed intimately upon the
palette, and of the same two pigments placed so as to be seen
together — i.e., visually intermixed — will not necessarily ba the
same. Chemical action between two substances often interferes

Colour

Fig. 87.

with the colorific result of an admixture; consequently, it by no
means follows that two apparently similarly coloured pigments
will, if each be mixed with a third pigment, produce equal colour
results.

In the practical use of colour we find that change is produced
in the appearance of colours by their near proximity to other

286 PAINTING AND DKCOKATING.

colours, and by their distance from the eye. The former changes
occur in three ways : — 1st, in depth, i.e., a colour placed
against another deeper colour appears paler by reason of the
proximity, and the deep colour also receives a change, appearing
deeper; 2nd, in hue, i.e., a red placed near a green looks redder
and makes the green look greener, each colour partaking of its
own opposite or complementary; 3rd, in quality of hue, i.e., a
cool green placed near a blue would look warmer, and a hot red
placed near a yellow would look more purplish ; here again the
colour takes on the complementary of its neighbour.

The change that takes place in colour by reason of its distance
from the eye is one of neutralisation. If we set a board divided
into sixteen squares, each of which is painted a different colour,
at a great distance from the spectator, the colours gradually merge
into one another, and, as the distance is increased, they resolve
themselves into a grey.

For a full and scientific study of colour the student must con-
sult the works of Hay, Chevreul, Field, and, above all, Professor
Church, and (more important still) must experiment constantly
with colours in a good light.

The chromatic circle (Fig. 87) will form a good basis for prac-
tical study. For convenience of reference it is divided into
either eight or sixteen parts and named arbitrarily. The position
of two primaries are shown, but normal red will come between
the scarlet and crimson main divisions. The colours opposite
each other are the true complementary hues of each other.

This circle should be set out and coloured with pigments as
nearly to the described colour as possible. The pigments should
all be opaque ones, as these change least by intermixture with
each other. The imperfections of pigments are so great that it
is impossible to obtain a correct representation of the colours of
the spectrum, but in practice the following will be found to be
sufficiently near for all ordinary purposes : —

For scarlet = vermilion and a little carmine.

,, blue = cobalt and a little ultramarine.

,, yellow = pale and middle cadmium.

,, greens = the yellow and blue mixed.

,, purple = the blue and carmine.

The intermediate colours are obtained by intermixture of the
principal ones. The writer has found that by restriction to the
pigments named here, the alteration of hue is reduced to a mini-
mum, when the colours are intermixed for experimental purposes.

colour. 287

Having compounded small portions of the sixteen colours, the
student may then try any number of suggestive experiments
based on the following principles : — Any two colours mixed
together will result in a colour which will be complementaiy to
a mixture of their two complementaries. Thus, 16 and 12 will
be complementary to 8 and 4, and will be fairly correct in what-
ever proportions they are mixed, if the complementaries are
mixed in the same proportions. For example: — One part of 16
and 3 parts of 12 must be complemented by one part of 8 and 3
parts of 4. The spaces may be numbered consecutively, it
being immaterial which space is numbered one. Every addition
or intermixture of course lowers the tone of a colour, and con-
tinued intermingling brings them down to a neutral grey. The
result of the intermixture of any two colours also harmonises
with the colour opposite but between the two, which is equal to,
or stands for the same as, the two actual complementaries. Thus
yellow and scarlet in equal pi'oportions will harmonise with and
form the complementary to blue equally as well as orange which
is its equivalent, so that in this set of combinations we may have

Orange complementary to blue,
Or ,, ,, to blue green and purple,

Or yellow and scarlet , , „ „

Or ,, ,, to blue.

Black or white may be added to colours in the circle, and, if
added in the same proportion to their complementaries, their
harmonious combination will not be interfered with.

In all experiments with pigments, the student will be sur-
prised at some apparent discrepancies. These are due to the
faulty nature of our pigments, which do not always produce
the same effect upon each other as we are led to suppose they
will. For instance, scarlet lightened with white loses some
of its natural yellow, and takes on an additional shade of
blue. To correct this we find it necessary to add a little
yellow. In fact the eye must always be on the watch for
little points of this kind that necessitate corrective measures.
Again, green and orange, which should, theoretically, produce
yellow, and bluish green and purple, which should produce pure
blue, do not do so on account of the fact that the admixture of
the two colours lowers the scale of purity. If these colours are
substituted for yellow or blue in a scheme, they will require
brightening up. The actual colour produced by mixing green
with orange is equivalent to yellow lowered in scale, and the
product of bluish green with purple to blue lowered in scale.

288 PAINTING AND DECO HATING.

In com oining such in a colour scheme, the lowering of scale may
be corrected either by the addition of the primary represented,
or by the covering of additional area with the lowered hue.
Thus, if areas represented by yellow be 3 and purple 8, and it
is desired to substitute a mixture of green and orange for tlie
yellow, then the lowered hue produced by mixing green and
orange will have to be used in the proportion of 0, to 5 of purple,
to produce the same balance and harmony, because

3 Gre.n + 3 orange = 3 yellow + Ui] j "j [ = 3 purple)
and 8 purple " ( { j j £jue j = 3 purple) = 5 purple.

In other words, 3 parts of the original 8 of purple are contained
in the lowered tone of yellow.

A due sense of the importance of colour is a vital necessity
to the painter and decorator. This importance must not be
construed to mean that strong colouring is necessary or desirable
in all decoration. In domestic work particularly, the colour of
the decorations must always be attendant on, and subservient
to, that of the furniture, fittings, and ornaments. It should
repeat them in a minor key or lead up to them.

Direct contrasts, to be at all successful, must be lowered in
tone towards neutrality. When the colours are pale, they may
be pure in tone, but wdien depth and strength are desirable,
there must be a counterbalancing reduction in brightness of
colour.

Large masses of colour may be more neutral in hue than
smaller areas. Positive colours should only be used in small
patches.

Classes of Colour Combination. — Colour combinations may
be divided into three classes, mono-chromatic, analogous, and
contrasting.

Mono-chromatic colouring is that in which the various parts
of the decorative scheme are all of the same hue, but varied in
depth, as when one hue of pink is employed in varying depths.

Analogous colouring is where there is, in addition to the fore-
going, a contrast of tone ; as in cases where various hues of red
are employed, ranging from orange to purple red.

Contrasting colouring is that in which the additional contrast
of colour is added to the other two, as when green and red, or
red, yellow, and blue are used together.

colour. 289

To further identify these methods of colouring, four illustra-
tions are given : —

Plate III. — Shows mono-chromatic colouring.

Plate IV. — Analogous colouring.

Plate II. — Contrasting colouring with complimentaries.

Frontispiece. — Contrasting poly-chromatic colouring.

Colour Values and Qualities. — In the application of colour
to surfaces an appreciation of "colour values" is necessary.
Colours are warm and cold, advancing and receding, light and
dark, and bright and dull. Colours in which blue predominates,
we term cold; those in which red is conspicuous, we term warm;
those in which yellow is apparent, advance; and those in which
grey tones are prominent, retire. Colours having a tendency to
whiteness, are light, and those having a tendency to blackness,
we term dark Colours having purity of hue are known as bright,
while those neutrally inclined are dull.

These peculiarities must be borne in mind and used archi-
tecturally, in a sense, to express facts of contour and formation,
and to repress what it is desirable to repress. If the student
carefully examines .the colours used to produce effects of light
and shade by the pictorial artist, it will assist him in dealing
with colour values when applying colour to architectural detail.

Requirements for the Study of Colour. — Many who com-
mence the study of colour as applied to decoration, are dis-
heartened by the confusion into which the subject has fallen by
the theoretic treatment of it by scientific writers, and hastily
assume that they are visually at fault in not seeing as others
appear to have seen. The great requirements for the colourist
are persistent study and experiment, a wide i-eading of works
on colour, and a broad and open mind; the faculties for the
appreciation of colour harmony can be trained to high perfection,
even where natural ability and intuitive knowledge are deficient,
if sincerity and observation are possessed by the student.

Methods of Selecting a Colour Scheme. — The methods
adopted by decorators in the selection of a colour scheme for
work in hand, vary considerably. Every man has his own way
of going to work. Plate No. III. is suggested by the leaf and
flower of a plant, the poppy. The brighter tones are used for the
principal parts of the work, and lowered for the larger surfaces.
Plate IV. is suggested by the red, yellow and blue of our "Royal
Standard," each lowered and composed and inter-combined, until
they are sufficiently reduced in hue for the purpose of room
decoration.

This lowering may be accomplished in four ways.

290 PAINTING AND D1CC0RATI NO.

If the combination is of two primary colours, each may be
lowered by the addition of the third primary ; thus red and
yellow would become

Red + blue ami yellow + blue,
(purplish red) (greenish yellow)

[f the combination is of a primary and a secondary, as red and
green, the two remaining primaries may be added, one to eacli,
as

Red + yellow and green + blue,
(orange red) (bluish green)

Or, Red + blue and green + yellow,
(purplish red) (greenish yellow)

If the contrasting colours are primaries, secondaries, or other
pure hues, they may be reduced by the addition of black, white,
or grey.

The colours may also be lowered by the addition of a little of
each to each, as in red and green, thus : —

Green + a little red = warm green.
Red -r a little green = a russety red.

Useful Rules for the Colourist. — There are many elemen-
tary facts and rules which it may be useful to record here for the
guidance of the painter, which space forbids discussing.

Light and heavy tones of colour have not always the same
relative effect. This depends greatly on hue. For instance, a
deep grey opposed to salmon would be lighter in effect than the
salmon, because the salmon would be the more insistent colour.

The cornice of a room belongs to the wall and not to the ceiling;
and the skirting to the wall and not to the wood-work. The
architraves may also be taken as part of the wall with justifica-
tion. The mouldings belong to stiles, not panels.

Colour has a strong tendency to attach to itself qualities ac-
quired by association. Thus we have some greys, which (though
theoretically soft retiring colours) by reason of their being
known as the colour of certain slates, stones, or marbles, appeal
to us as solid and heavy.

One colour, either a primary or secondary, should always pre-
dominate in a scheme of decorative colouring to ensure success,
and all the primaries should be present in some form.

Contrast in colour suggests life and all that is opposite to
repose. Monochrome colouring, especially when pure in tone,
suggests quiet, repose, and rest.

COLOUR. 291

Black and white when used with colours require modifying to
avoid harshness and crudity.

To white used in combination with blue, add a touch of orange;
when with red, add yellow ; when with yellow, add purple or

g^y-
To black, when contrasted with blue, add brown ; when with
red, add green ; when with greys, add orange,

On light colours, Umber and Indian red, olive green, and
Quaker green will all take the place of true black.

True black or white are seldom required in decoration except
as gems in jewellery.

■ Gold takes the place of yellow in a decorative scheme, and is
improved by reJs and greens in juxtaposition.

All colours must be decided upon in situ, the incidence and
quantity of lighting will otherwise invariably interfere with
their intended effect.

In a rich, deep, colour scheme pale tints and white used
sparingly and in minute lines or dots will add to the richness.
In a similar manner, rich, bright colours and black will affect a
lightly tinted scheme ; used unsparingly they will vulgarise and
destroy the harmony.

The effect of artificial light on colours may be tested in day
time by putting a piece of the colour in a box lighted by a
candle and peeping through a hole bored in the side of the box.

Greens should not be used where they will spoil the effect of
green lawns, trees, and gardens, but the use of them should be
encouraged in town houses and for city external painting.

In the country, where a large amount of yellow and yellow
browns and greens prevail, and where sunshine and sunset are
not unknown, pure white may be used with unstinted hand,
but in towns and cities and manufacturing districts it has a cold
and cheerless effect, and cream should be substituted ; pale cream
with yellows, deep cream with blues, warm cream with greens,
and neutral cream with reds.

Use cool tints for a room having a south aspect, and warm
tints for a room having a north aspect.

In outside painting it is well to remember that greater scope
awaits the decorator than indoors. It is a duty that we owe to
our fellows that we make the exterior of our dwellings pleasing
in appearance, and colour is the readiest means of complying
with the duty. There is no excuse for dull, heavy, leaden
colouring on the outside of houses, especially city houses because
they are not continually before our eyes at all times as is the
case with internal painting.

292 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

Iii conclusion, it should be borne in wind that though there
are set rules which govern the use of colour, the eye must
always be the final arbiter, subject to the broad principles here
laid down. Associations and personal preferences are uncon-
sciously brought into play when discussing the merits of a piece
of colouring, and it may usually be assumed that what ajjjyears
right, is so ; but, however assertive opinions based on personal
preference may be, no colouring will appeal pleasingly to an
educated eye, if it be not based upon known laws.

Colour Combinations.— The following combinations of colour
may assist the student by suggestion. They are all more or
less correct in basis, and have been found to work out well.
The nomenclature adopted is as popularly descriptive as can he
obtained. Considerable existing confusion in the naming of
colours adds much to the difficulties of the subject.

Contrasting Couplets.

Normal red and blue green.

Scarlet ,, turquoise blue.

Violet ,, reddish orange.

Reddish violet ,, yellowish orange.

Purple , , golden yellow.

Red purple ,, greenish yellow.

Crimson ,, mid green.

Pattern on Ground.
Pink on red.

Light green ,,

deep green.

Gold

red.

White

full deep yellow.

Blue

white.

Gold

brown ochre.

Grey

red brown.

Yellow ,,

deep green.

Yellow ,,

red brown.

Deep green ,,

gold.

Coffee brown , ,

gold.

Quiet Toned Cotiplets.

Maroon and

bluish sage green.

Red

neutral grey.

Blue green ,.

grey brown neutral,

Blue sage ,,

red brown.

Plum

spring green.

Slate

citrine.

Olive

lavender.

Cream ,,

greens and purples.

White „

pink.

colour. 293

Grey blue and full yellow.

Black ,, foxy brown.

Violet ,, pale greeu.

Black ,, warm green.

Claret „ buff.

Colour Schemes used by Writer. — The following colour
schemes are from the writer's experience, and are set down
irrespective of purpose or order : —

Ceiling Decoration, Church. — Grey-green blue with bands of
grey-green and cream clouds, starred over the blue with red and
white stars ; outlines to bands, red and black.

Bedroom. — Ceiling, cream ; cornice, pale green ; walls, jade
green ; wood-work, white ; curtains, green and gold ; furniture,
white and gold.

Dining-room. — Walls, a neutral green, mid tone ; frieze, dull
buff and black, with maroon and gold ornamentation upon it ;
Ceiling of dark oak wood- work ; door, golden-brown panels, deep
olive stile, panels decorated in gold, with black outline and
detail.

Hall and Staircase. — Ceiling, in pale buff; frieze, warm buff;
walls, drab stone colour with red lines upon it ; dado band, deep
warm buff; dado, panelled out in maroon and neutral blue.

Drawing-room. — Light cream ceiling ; pale warm grey walls ;
irieze, fawn colour ; wood-work, a deeper grey and a deeper
fawn, with neutral green and gold ; and golden-brown decorated
panels.

Grand Drawing-room. — Frieze, gold, strong yellow and white;
ceiling, lemon yellow ; walls, a strong orange red ; wood-work,
light red mahogany and gilt ormolu ; plenty of gilding to
cornices, &c.

A Decorated Panel. — Dull blue ground, with vellum and
golden yellow scroll, with black letters on it; leaves and stems
in brown and olive greens.

Dining-room. — Ceiling, pale bluish green ; cornice, terra-cotta
and gold; walls, a red and gold Jap leather; dado, Brunswick
green glazed with Prussian blue ; wood-work, a deep brown oak.

A Staircase. — Ceiling panels, greyish olive tint; walls, olive
green tint ; dado, red ; frames, greenish grey stone ; doors, rich
Chippendale red.

Outside of House. — Brick red with cream white facings ; wood-
work green, from black and ochre, deep.

Another. — Stone colour, drab. Grey blue and olive green.

Half-timbered House. — Wood-work, red, and plaster, grey ; or
wood-work, bottle green, and plaster, brownish white.

294

PAINTING AND ])KCO HATING

Drawing-room. — Soft pink panels to ceiling, ornamented in
greys of a green cast and gold outlines ; cornice ; citrine, cream
and gold ; walls, green, citrine, pink and gold ; wood-work ; stiles
and framing, greenish citrine, cream and gold; mouldings, gold;
panels, rich pink and gold, and white ornament thereon.

Drawing-room Panelled by Pilasters. — Panels, rose colour;
pilasters, dove colour; caps and moulds, gold; dado, white and
slatey grey; ceiling, pale blue; cornice, white.

Decorative Panels. — Gold ground, transparent colours added to
whiting in oil; gives a translucent effect, especially blues and reds.

Panel Decoration. — Ground, dull orange; red and white
flowers, shaded up with grey tones , leaves, greyish and sap
greens ; outlines in coffee brown.

Another. — Turquoise blue ground ; flowers, orange and wall-
flower brown ; leaves, bluish to brownish olive tints ; other
flowers or ribbons in crimson and brown ; outline in cool brown.

Panel for Drawing Room. — Ground, primrose yellow; pattern
stencilled in white, and double stencilled in glazes of raw and
burnt Sienna, with some gilding.

Decorative Panel. — Ground, orange to brown , shaded stems,
greyish brown ; fruit, crimson to citron ; blossoms, white and
pink ; leaves in olive greens and greys.

II all Walls. — Frieze, fawn colour; tilling, golden green with
buff and a greyer green upon it ; dado band, black and gold ;
dado, subdued crimson.

Triune Combinations. — Suggestions for frieze, filling, and
dado in order named : —

Old gold.
Brownish gold,
Green.
.Sage green.
Cream.
Gold.
Olive tint
Sap green tint.
Green.
Terra- co tta.
Apricot.
Flesh tint.

Terra- cotta.
Peacock blue.
Dull orange brown.
Rich orange gold.
Amber-toned yellow.
Pale neutral blue.
Salmon.
Rose grey.
Yellow br <nze.
Sage green.
Golden brown.
Pale olive.

Neutral blue.
Claret colour.
Warm grey blue.
Purplish red.
Quiet blue
Deep red.
Blue slate.
Pomegranate reil.
Maroon.
Claret colour.
Brownish plum colour.
Venetian red.

Dado Decoration. — Chancel of Church. — Green on gold with
maroon and black lines.

Dado and Chancel Decoration. — Olive green ground, deeper
olive and gold pattern, with rich claret and deep rich blue and
gold borders, lines of gold with vermilion dots on same.

Decorative Panel. — Vellum ground with decorative orange

MM&fSk

Plate 2G.-B0RDERS SUITABLE FOR ONE-COLOUR STENCILLING.

To face p. 294. ]

colour. 295

plant ; gold oranges shaded with burnt Sienna and cadmium ;
leaves, grey greens shaded with sepia and neutral tint ; stems,
Sienna and Umber.

A Simple Treatment for a Bedroom. — Take a deep sap green
for framing of wood-work and skirting, and a yellowish cream
f3r ceiling ; make all other intermediate tints by mixing the
two in varying proportions ; add a little yellow to the tints for
projecting members of cornice, and blue for receding ones.

Study Door. — Stiles, deep oak ; panel, black ground with green
gold, brown gold and greyish olive foliage upon it.

Drawing Boom Door. — Buff-toned yellow stiles in enamel ;
turquoise blue grounded, flattened panels, ornament gilded and
then glazed over in Umber, terra vert, and burnt Sienna, so that
all the gold is covered.

An Illustration of Analogous Harmony. — A combination of
primrose yellow, primrose green, gold, yellowish brown, and
yellow orange.

In conclusion, the student is warned that the use of bright
colouring and strong contrasts must not be attempted unless
considerable skill in the management of colours has been attained,
and that the combining together of neutral tones with rich, but
not bright, complementaries will be found to be safest and most
generally popular course.

Before leaving the subject, a few words may be added on the
effect of illuminants upon colour in decoration.

Calculation of the Effect of Artificial Light on Colour.
— The effect of artificial, incandescent electric, gas, or candle
light on colours may be roughly computed by adding to each
colour about 15 per cent, of yellow. In the case of colours con-
taining yellow, and of a yellow dominant hue, this addition is
unnoticeable, because the result of the addition of yellow to the
non-yellowish colours causes the yellow ones to appear less yellow
by contrast. It follows, then, that in order to provide against
this apparent loss the artist must add to all his yellowish colours,
not only this 15 per cent., but something over and above it in
order to maintain his relative scale of colour. The following
represents to the writer the appearance of each colour singly
when seen by gaslight.

Yellow appears, when pure and free from either green or
orange tinge, to represent almost white — a colour akin to
luminosity. Pure blue appears as almost black, or represents
neutrality — darkness. Pure scarlet appears normal, but in-
tensified in brilliance. Pure bright bluish green appears normal,
but slightly loses in brilliance.

296

PAINTING AND DECORATING.

The following chart shows the appearance of the intermediate
colours, the arrows representing the direction in which the
change takes place; thus orange looks redder, purple also
redder, green blue appears greener blue, and yellow green bluer
green.

Yellow.

Bluish green.

/*&"

^2L_

J*g/

Scarlet red.

Blue.

Fig. 88.

These effects are dependent upon the pigments or materials
examined, but some curious discrepancies occur which it is
needless to detail here.

The broad principle appears to be that the addition of yellow
rays and the loss of blue rays cause the luminous colours to lose
and the non-luminous colours to gain in brilliance.

Professor Church gives a list of effects which, though not
apparently governed by rule, produce quite similar conclusions.

Plate 27.— NATURAL TIES IN STENCIL WORK.

To face p. 296.]

297

CHAPTER XXIII.

ESTIMATING

NY work on this subject would be
considered incomplete, were a short
chapter not devoted to this most
necessary, but, to the writer, com-
paratively uninteresting subject.
"Science is measurement," someone
has said, and we might parody it
and say, success is measurement; at
least in the painting trade. Accurate
measurement and close observation
are the bases of all good estimating.

Methods of Measuring Work.—
Two methods of measuring are in
vogue in the pjinting and decorating trade. The one has for
its object the setting down to scale of a part of a room or
building in order to design the decoration for it, and is not
concerned with superficies so much as with lineal dimensions.
The other is for pricing, and is principally concerned with
quantities, not sizes.

In measuring a room or building for the former purpose,

298 PAINTING AND DKCORATING.

a plan of the room and an elevation are necessary. These should
be made to show all measurements in figures. The plan and
elevation must be roughly sketched, and then the measurements
taken and the figures set down upon it.

In measuring for pricing, the details of the measuring need
not be kept separate, but the totals only need to be set down.
For instance, in measuring the cornice of a room, the separate
lengths are mentally added together, making a grand total,
which is put down in the notebook ; the items being ignored.

Estimating. — When estimating, the work should be gone
through in the order in which it would be carried out; i.e.,
preparation first, decoration last. By adopting this method,
any omissions are more effectually guarded against.

The following rules are usually adhered to in computing the
value of work : —

All stopping, washing, and rubbing down are charged by
time, or the time they will require is guessed at and put down
at an assessed sum. This refers to every description of pre-
paratory work, as taking off old paint, &c.

Painting is calculated and priced at per yard superficial, or
square, excepting in the case of running pipes or skirtiugs,
cornices, &c, which are less than 1 foot in width.

Distempering is also measured by the yard superficial.

Items, such as grids, ventilators, windows, chimney pieces,
sashframes, doors, &c, are often enumerated at a set sum each.

In pricing painted work, the number of intended coats is
specified and the price per yard assessed accordingly. Thus,
2-coat paint work would not be taken as double the quantity,
or twice the price of one coat work, but an additional amount
per yard charged for the extra coat.

Paper-hanging is charged at a price per piece for hanging.

Graining and marbling are charged at per yard superficial for
plain work.

Lettering is charged at per letter, the prices varying according
to size of letters.

Gilding is charged at so much per book of gold.

All these methods are subject to variation under different
circumstances.

In decorative work the most correct way to assess the value
is to compute the time it will take a man to do each of the
various parts of the work, and add the time together.

In ordinary plain painting it is useful to check the figures that
are arrived at by the method of estimating described above, by a
second calculation, based on the time taken to do the work. Of

MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 299

course, the cost of material must in both instances be added to
the time calculation.

Comparative Prices for Painting. — The following com-
parative prices may be found useful, if taken in conjunction
relatively with the prices for plain painting which are current
at the time and place under consideration : —

If plain painting 1 coat per square yard be worth 5d. —

Painting 2 coats will be worth 8d. per yard super.
ii 3 „ „ 9d. „ ,,

.» 4 ,, ,, lid. „ „

,, 3 coats and 1 flatting coat, Is. per yard super.

Distempering in tints, 3d. per yard super.
„ „ white, 24d. „ ,,

All preparation is an extra charge.

1 coat of varnish, good, 5d. per yard super.
1 ,, ,, best, 7d. ,, ,,

Hanging paper, 9d. to Is. 3d. per piece, according to quality of paper.

Graining oak, Is. to 2s. 6d. per yard, according to quality and quantity.

Gilding on large surfaces, 4s. 6d. per book of gold, and time.

Lettering, 4d. per inch in height per letter, for plain 1 colour.

Gold lettering, Id. per inch in height per letter, up to 3 inches high ; 2d.
per inch up to 9 inches high ; over 9 inches high, 6s. per book of gold used.

300

CHAPTER XXIV.

b1 the differences between coach-
painting and house-painting the
most important are that provi-
sion must be made for more
hard wear, washing, and rubbing
in the former work than in or-
dinary house work ; that the
work is exposed to extremes of
temperature and atmosphere, and
that the carriage is chiefly com-
posed of hard, closely -grained
woods and metal, with a conse-
quent absence of porosity or key
for the paint, rendering the work far more liable to scale and
chip. The result of these differences is, broadly speaking, that
a harder and less elastic treatment is called for ; one, in which
the various coats shall be thoroughly homogeneous with the
ground and with eacli other. The earlier coats must be hard and
tenacious, partaking of the character of the ground and yet not
so hard as to chip from it. It may also be advanced that the
finish in all coach work is of a higher character than that of
house-painting ; the space covered is less, and the labour forms

i i H It "3 i i * -3 J i

Plate 28.— STENCIL FRIEZES FOR BLENDED COLOURING.
^o/ace p. 300.]

COACH-PAINTING. 301

a greater proportion of the expense than in house-painting, with
the natural consequence that for such small quantities of
material as are required, a higher price is usually given. The
fact that house work is not equally well finished is due to false
economy, carelessness, and slovenliness in perhaps equal propor-
tions. There is no technical or rational reason why the better
pai'ts of the work in a house should not be as well done as
carnages are. In many old mansions, work in every respect
perfect in finish is to be found, and enquiry usually proves it to
have been clone for twenty to thirty years, and to have been
cheaper in the end than the more familiar shoddy work.

In coach-painting and varnishing much that has already been
said has equal force. The brushes, tools, pigments, modes of
applying the colour, thinnings, and varnishes are practically the
same, and there is nothing in former chapters that may not be
advantageously known to the carriage painter. There are, per-
haps, a few— very few — items which do not usually find their
way into the painter's shop, and these will be particularised.

Preparation for Coach-Painting. — The surfaces for treat-
ment in a carriage will be woods, metal, canvas, and leather. Of
knots, there will be few or none ; but all grease must be washed
off the iron-work and wood-work by the use of turpentine. Thin
knotting is often used all over the panels to kill sap and uneven-
ness. Scrape all red lead off the joints. This is used by the
carriage builder in place of glue in much of the framing. Prime
with ordinary priming of white lead, 3 parts of turps to one part
of oil. Tone the priming a grey that will incline to the finishing
colour with a little vegetable black ; extra driers will be requisite
for teak, oak, elm, or ash. Allow the work to stand a couple of
days before re-coating, and then second coat with the same prim-
ing. Use hard stopping (white lead and japanners' varnish) for
the holes and cracks. Allow the stopping to harden for a couple
of days, and then glass-paper down. Take care that the stopping
is pressed well home, and observe all the precautions set down
in the chapter on Plain Painting, especially that the heads of
brads, &c, are painted, and that there is no dust in the holes to
prevent the stopping holding firmly.

Filling up. — The next process will be the filling up, a process
which, in the house-painting trade, is more often honoured in
the breach than in the observance. Coach-makers' colour manu-
facturers prepare many kinds of filling powder. Harland's or
Berger's supply the best. Dry white lead and whiting may bo
substituted, or powdered pumice may be added to the last two.
The usual powders sold are preparations of shale or slate finely

302 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

pulverised. Whatever the pigment used, it is ground Gnely
in turpentine, and thinned with japanners'gold size to a working
consistency. If the work is very rough the lirst coat can be
applied with a spatula or palette knife, or a thin steel broad
chisel or scraping knife, as described for painter's work. If so,
it is used stiffly of a paste consistency. The other coats, of
which three to six will be requisite, are laid with a soft brush ;
a Hat varnish brush or a camel-hair in tin, of about three inches
in breadth, is suitable for the purpose. There must be enough
japanners' gold size to prevent the successive coats working up
the undercoatings.

The rubbing down maybe done with glass paper, dry ; or with
pumice stone and water. The specially manufactured prepared
blocks of pumice are, however, the best thing for this work, and
may be obtained in several varying degrees of gi'ain, from very
fine to very coarse. Steel wire wool has lately been introduced
for the purpose, and also a combination of steel filings.

The iron-work may be primed in the same way and at the
same time as the wood-work, but will not require filling up to the
same extent, probably not at all.

The canvassed surfaces can also be treated in a similar manner,
but with a rather greater proportion of oil in the colour.

The leather covered parts will not require priming, but must
be painted in varnish colour of a similar hue and shade to the
proposed finish.

In all carriage work plenty of time between all the coats is
a sine quA non to success, and care must be taken that the
original wood-work, leather, and canvas are dry, and also that
all the water used in rubbing down has dried out of the crevices
before proceeding with another coat.

When the leather and iron-work have had about three
coats, and the wood surfaces are fairly smooth and good, the
finishing painting is proceeded with. Sometimes for extra good
work a further series of filling up coats are added and rubbed
down.

It is a good plan to give a coat of quick drying Japan colour,
of some bright contrasting hue, over the filling up before rubbing
down, to act as a check or signal. When rubbing down, it will
be easily seen when a perfectly level surface has been obtained,
as so long as any of the check colour is visible, there must be a
depression at that point.

In rubbing down, all the precautions referred to in house
painting must be observed.

The coat following the filling should have a fair amount of

Plate 29. -FRIEZES DESIGNED FOR POLYCHROMATIC COLOURING.
To fact p. 302.]

COACH-PAINTING. 303

varnish in it, as it will penetrate slightly into the filling up
which will be porous.

The list of desirable colours is the same as for house-painting.
Many rich and beautiful colours are obtained only by the use
ot glazes, as has been already noticed in the chapter on Colour.

Finishing. — The number of finishing coats will be determined
by the necessities aad covering power of the colour chosen, as a
solid well-covered ground must be obtained before varnishing.
The finishing colour must be very finely ground in turpentine,
if not purchased in that condition, and thinned with best carriage-
body varnish. Nowadays, however, it is far cheaper to buy the
colour ready ground in collapsible tubes, such as are supplied by
Messrs. Mander Bros., or in air-tight tins with self-emptying
apparatus, such as are sent out specially by Messrs. Berger & Co.
In cheap work, oil colours (such as are used by painters) are thinned
with turpentine and a drying varnish ; but good work cannot be
got by this method. Japan gold size may be added to the varnish
colour to expedite the drying, but plenty of time should be
allowed whenever possible. Between each finishing coat a very
slight rubbing with flour glass paper, or with fine ground pumice,
is necessary, but it must be lightly and evenly done, and well
cleaned and dusted afterwards. For particulars as to the appli-
cation of the paint, reference may be made to Plain Painting.
A damp leather may be used to dust the work after the ordinary
dusting brush.

Varnishing. — The stage of varnishing is next reached. Every
care must be taken to protect the surface from dust and dirt,
and to keep it at a warm temperature during varnishing ; the
warnings given to house painters need emphasising two-fold.
Striping, lettering, or heraldic or other decoration, may be done
before, or after, the first varnishing. The writer prefers to get
a few coats of varnish on prior to decorating.

Hard copal varnish, hard body varnish or flatting varnish
(not to be confounded with the dead or encaustic flatting
varnish used in house painting, which dries without gloss)
is used for the preliminary coats. Two or three coats laid on
evenly and not too roundly, and allowed to harden, are neces-

The "flatting" or rubbing down with ground pumice powder
in water is then proceeded with. Ground pumice of varying
degrees of fineness are used with water, and a rubber of felt or
box cloth or close tweed. The rubbing should be even and
without pressure, and should be continued till the whole surface
has been thoroughly dulled. Finish with the finest levigated

304 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

pumice powder. Three clays should elapse between flatting
down and re varnishing. The number of coats of varnish will
be an open question, and must be left to experience. The
colour and finish are factors in determining the number. There
should be no rubbing down after the first, except a mere sus-
picion with the felt only to slightly dull the polish, and between
the last two coats no rubbing at all is desirable. For black
work, black Japan of the best quality is used in place of varnish,
but a better absolute black can be obtained by using it over
deep Prussian blue.

Lining and Decorating. — Decoration and lining must in all
cases be done before the last two coats of varnish, or the work
will project above the general surface. When felting, be careful
not to cut into heraldic or monogram work.

For lining, long sable liners are the best, and the colour
should be of turpentine and varnish. Gilding should be in
Japan size, lowered with body varnish or Harland's writing size.
Ordinary oil tube colours are used for heraldic painting.

The method of lining or striping is different from that
practised by the house decorator, in consequence of the number
of curves the carriage painter has to follow, and may be de-
scribed. Holding the pencil between the thumb and forefinger,
and using the colour rather thin, the second finger, and some-
times the othei's, are allowed to rest upon, and be guided by,
the edge of the panel, shaft, or spoke, and act as a gauge. A
little practice gives great expertness and accuracy, and lines of
widths varying from ^V of an inch to f of an inch are readily
and correctly run at one operation by the use of different sized
liners, of which illustrations have already been given. The
instructions for lettering may be taken from the chapter on that
subject. For traps and carts finished in the natural wood, a
filler to stop up the grain of the wood in the manner adopted by
French polishers is necessary. Take § plaster of Paris and ^
whiting, and mix with water ; and rub well into the surface
with a handful of shavings or a sponge, leaving none on the
surface. Allow to dry, and then dust off, and give a coat of
^ Japan gold size, and J turpentine ; allow it to saturate, but
leave none upon the surface of the work. Or, use one of the
patent wood fillers specially manufactured for the purpose
Proceed as for varnishing painted work.

In re-painting old work, all the previous paint and varnish
should be removed in the same way as for painters' work gener-
ally.

For business carts and vans, the following method of proceed-

Plate 30.— PATTERN FOR STENCILLING OVER THE JOINTS OF INGRAIN PAPER.
To face p. 304.]

COACH-PAINTING. 305

ing is cheap and expeditious : — Two coats of priming, two of
colour, and two of varnish. Two coats of filling up may be
interposed after the priming, if considered necessary.

Motor Cars and. Cycles. — The same general rules apply to
both motor cars and cycles, except that most of the metal parts
are coated with a stoving enamel, which is dried in about four
hours at a temperature of 120° to 160° in a close stove or heated
chambei\ Motor cars require a hard finish to withstand the
dust. The action of the particles is nearly akin to a sand-
blast and the harder the varnish the less likely they are to
dull it, a hard surface causing them to fly off at a tangent.
Stoving enamels and special varnishes and colours for this work
are sold by the leading firms. Manders devote a special cata-
logue to a fine range of coach colours, including some good clear
yellows. Blume's automobile varnish is specially prepared to
stand abrasion, as well as extremes of temperature, and Olsina
stoving enamels made in thirty-six shades are certainly equal
to anything we have tested for the purpose of cycle work.

Ship-Painting. — The practice of ship-painting differs only
slightly from the two foregoing. Indeed, a combination of the
two methods of proceeding is usually adopted. For the princi-
pal work, first-class carriage-painting is used; and for the rougher
work, first-class house-painting. All the methods and materials
used are similar, and the same men are frequently employed
upon both house- and ship-painting. Special treatment of a
rough class is used for the iron-work and for the hull externally,
usually a salt water resisting enamel containing asphaltum in
some form. For boats, special varnishes are made to stand
water, both salt and fresh. That of Messrs. Harland is a
specialty among Thames boatbuilders. There are no points of
technique of sufficient distinctiveness in ship decoration to form
the subject of a special chapter.

306

CHAPTER XXV.

7%QW*l0nL GLASSES.

"1 HE equipment and conduct of a class for painters
and decorators are matters of considerable difficulty
and expense, and have in some instances been so
sadly mismanaged that a few words on the subject
may be of value to all connected with such a class,
either as organisers, teachers, or visitors.

It is necessary in the conduct of a painter's class to at
once realise that much that is in the common routine of
daily work can only be taught theoretically, and that lads
of such year^ as attend the classes cannot reasonably be
expected to produce first-class plain painting, the facility to
produce which is the result of long continued practice upon
actual work.

A class affords no scope for such practice, and the limited
screens or panels that can be conveniently painted in the
class give no opportunity for the practical teaching of plain
painting.

The mission of the class must therefore be directed to the
teaching of the scientific principles that underlie the use and
application of paint, and the theoretic manner of carrying these
principles into practice.

painters' technical classes. 307

The same arguments apply to paperhanging, distempering,
and many other kindred operations covered by the term painting
and decorating.

The acceptance of this principle at once does away with the
very considerable initial difficulty of providing or attempting
to provide large surfaces, doors, and other material for experi-
mental operations, as was actually attempted in the early stages
of technical classes for painters. It also removes the apparent
necessity for insisting on thoroughly proficient plain painting
prior to admitting a student to the decorative section of the
work.

The experience of several years has conclusively proved to
me that any time of the student which is taken up by merely
repeating the actual work upon which he is daily engaged is
wasteful and disappointing both to the student and the class.
On the other hand, time spent in lucidly explaining the why
and wherefore of the operations in the student's daily work
secures his interest and places in his hands a power which is
put into practice out of class hours, and then his ordinary
working hours are made to supplement his class teaching.

Before proceeding to detail the course of study to be recom-
mended, we will discuss the fitting and equipment of the class-
room, and the materials that it will be requisite to stock, toge-
ther with the best form they can take. The perishable nature
of painters' stock, and its liability to deterioration, make it
undesirable to stock in the same manner as for an ordinary
business. If the class is a winter session one, and the evenings
only are devoted to it, the question of preserving and cleansing
brushes will require arrangement, and whenever possible it is
desirable that students should bring their own brushes for the
work in hand. Large brushes are costly and require consider-
able care and attention.

Assuming that the class is an evening one, the first question
will be that of light. The inverted arc light is far and away
the best for the purpose. By its steady diffused white light
continuous colour work is possible. I do not, however, know
of a single class-room used by paintei'-students in which this
light is fixed, although in many cases it is in use in other
departments of schools.

The walls of the room and the ceiling should be of untoned
white, so as to form a true neutral relation to colours.

There should be several benches of a height to work at stand-
ing— i.e., about table height — with paint slabs and mullers,
knives, &c, and a drawer below the slab for rags for cleaning

308 PAINTING AND DECORATING.

down. A large keg or cask for waste paint, of which there
will accumulate a fairly large quantity, as each student should
prepare his own colour and will have some little left over; also
paint cans and pots.

In regard to pots,' it is a good plan to induce students to
bring their own and take them away when done with. This
does away with a lot of unnecessary cleaning and waste of clas3
time, and serves to keep the class-room more tidy than if all
pots and cans were the property of the school.

A large well-shelved cupboard should be reserved for paint in
use — i.e., for storage between the class meetings.

Easels will be required for pencil work, and desks for drawing
and lectures.

Drawing-boards and tee-squares should also be provided by
the school.

Screens — which can be covered with cloth, calico, paper, or
canvas — for working upon should be fixed at intervals round
the room. On these screens decorative work of all kinds, sign-
writing, (fee, can be done, and afterwards unpinned and removed
for inspection or exhibition. Space will be saved if these screens
are placed at right angles to the wall.

The precise arrangement and equipment of the room or rooms
must be governed by the proportion and space of the accommoda-
tion ; but if it can be so arranged, the room for the lectures and
for the teaching of drawing should be a separate one altogether
from that used for painting in.

Colours, varnishes, and oils should be exclusively of the best,
and material likely to be tendered by firms advertising special
goods should only be received by way of samples for contrast
with the goods generally used in the class.

Genuine white lead and zinc white, both in oil and dry
powder; oils, boiled and raw linseed, and turpentine; whiting,
size in powder form, and filling-up composition — are all the
goods of which large quantities will be required.

Other colours ground in oil and put up in the large tubes used
by decorators will be found cleanly and convenient. A very
full set of these should be obtained of a good firm. Another
complete set in dry powder form, stored in small drawers, will
be required for distemper and for varnish or quick-drying colour
mixing.

The mixing of all paint upon the slab, and, if necessary, the
grinding of pigments by hand, should be encouraged, as this
teaches the students the effects of the various oils upon pig-
ments, and the peculiar properties of pigments, and the manner

painters' technical classes. 309

in which they affect tho colour of each other when combined,
much more thoroughly than when colours are mixed in a can,
pot, or other vessel.

The usual odds and ends required in a painter's shop should
be kept, and a rigid observance of "a place for everything" will
be most necessary, even extending to rags for wiping down
benches and knives.

A few varnishes of tried and known excellence must be kept
in such a place and manner as to be always clean and in pi'iine
condition.

The syllabus of teaching will be usually based on that of the
City and Guilds of London Institute, which provides three
grades or classes. These classes may be so disposed that each
is in turn engaged in drawing, at practical work, or at a lecture
or demonstration ; while the other two are otherwise occupied,
no two classes doing the same work as any other on the same
evening. If three evenings a week are taken, this will get the
three subjects into each student's work in one form or other in
each week.

The lectures should be accompanied by sketches on the black-
board, and ocular demonstration of the processes and methods
explained. The writer has sometimes found it advisable to
have a demonstrating assistant taken from the advanced class
of students.

Students should be encouraged to take full notes of the points
in the lectures.

Drawing should be made as far as possible to bear directly on
the trade work, thus — a small scale sketch may be worked out
to full size, a stencil cut, and made ready for use as a drawing
lesson.

Drawing from memory and from description of simple objects
will be found valuable.

Test questions should be frequently set, and replies written
to them at home and handed in by the students for criticism.

In the study of colour it is a good plan to accustom students
to make up tints or shades of colour from a verbal description
of them.

^SSSSS5SSBs3r^^sSt^^

Absorbent graining. 211.
Acid resisting paints, 170.
Adulteration of pigments, 81.
^Esthetic effects in relief decoration,

281.
Alabaster, 214.
Alizarin, 78.
Alum in distemper, 117.
Anaglypta, 99, 100.

Paste for, 112.
Analysis of light, 284.
Aniline reds, 78.
Antwerp blue, 78.
Appliances, Plant and, 31.
Application of stains, 176.
A pplying varnishes, 185.
Area, Quantity of paint to cover

given, 131.
Art, Identity of work and, 6.

,, Relation of Science to, 6.
Artificial light on colours, 291, 295.
Artistic limitations of staining, 174.
Artists' browns, Decorative, 76.

,, yellows, 77.
Ash, Graining, 210.
Aspect of colours, Scientific, 283.

,, of rooms, 291.
Association and colour, 290.

Bastard flatting on woodwork, 157.
Beauty v. fashion, 256.

,, Relation of, to cleanliness, 5.

Beauty and truth, 6.
Bedrooms, Treatment of, 9.
Bench, Colours to be kept on, 16.
,, in painting room, 22.
,, Paint, covered with zinc, 18.
,, trestles, 41.
Benches for painting room, 21.
Bennett's brushes, 61.
, , strainers, 47.
,, varnish can, 187.
Berger's paint, 83.
Binders and media for water colours,

87.
Bins for plaster and whiting, 19.
Bischof's white lead, 71.
Black and gold marble, 213.

,, and white, their modification,

291.
,, ,, in colour schemes,

291.
„ Blue, 80.
,, Drop, 80.
„ Ivory, 80.
,, Lamp, 80.
,, paint, 80.
,, Vegetable, SO.
Blistering, 164.
Blisters and knots, 164.
,, how caused, 164.
,, on stone, cement, and iron,

165.
,, Prevention of, 165.
Block v. machine printed papers, 94.
Blocks, Pulley, 40.
Blooming in varnishes, 192.
Blue, Antwerp, 78.
„ black, 80.

312

INJJKX.

Bine, Bremen, 79.

,, Chinese, 78.

,. Lime, 78.

,, New, 78.

,, Prussian, 78.
Blame's varnishes, 186.
Boards, Mixing, 44.

Paste, 40.
Boiled oil, 86.

,, v. raw, Action of, 124.

Book, day-, Rough, for paint shop,
19, 47.
,, for plant, 47.
Books on lettering, 231.
Borders and panelling in paperhang-

ing, 111.
Breadth of effect in decoration, 254.
Breakfast room, Treatment of, 9.
Bremen blue, 79.
Brick walls, Colouring, 142.
Bridling a brush, 59.
Brimsdown white lead, 71.
Bristles and hairs, 49.

,, Quantity of, in a brush, 51.
Broken colour, 251.
Bronze and Quaker greens, 79.
Bronzes, 227.
Bronzing and gilding, 216.

,, upon distemper ground, 270.

,, ,, relief materials, 280.

Brown lakes, 76.

,, Vandyke, 76.
Browns, Decorative artists', 76.
Brunswick greens, 79.
Brushes, adhering to one make, 68.

,, American distemper, 54.

,, Bennett's Joyce loop, 67.
Bridling, 59.

,, Caustic, 55.

,, Crippling in, 64.

,, Distemper, 52, 143.

Flat, 53.

,, ,, ,, varnish,

62.

,, ,, Knot, 53.

,, ,, Sizes of, 53.

,, ,, The best, 54.

,, Economy in buying, 69.

,, Fibre scrub. ;~,0.

,, Flat wall painting, 55.

,, Foreign, 50.

,, found by employer, 69.
French,50.

,, Ground or paint, 58.

Brushes, importance of knowledge of

all kinds, 200.

,, Lime white, 50.

,, Methods of fixing the hair
in, 50.

,, Paint or ground 58.

,, I'apei hanging, 103.

,, ,, v. rollers, 102.

,, 1'u i chase of, 6S.

,, Quantity of bristles in, 51.

,, .Selection of paint, 51.

,, Storage of, 09.

,, Test of good, 51.

,, ,, for fibre in, 51.

,, and tools, 49.

,, Trays for keeping soft, 17.

,, Varnish, 61.

Washer or smutch pan, 17.
Buckets, 44.
Burners, Charcoal, 46.
Burning off old paint, 157.

,, ,, lamps, 45.
Burnish gold size, 218.

,, and matt gilding, 223.
Burnt Sienna, 76.
,, umber, 76.

Camel-hair flats, 68.
,, mops, 67.

,, writers, 66.

Cans or kettles, 44.
Canvas, Decoration in distemper on,
142.
,, Painting, 170.
Car painting, 305.

Carriages, Decorating and lining 304.
,, Filling-up on, 301.
,, Finishing colour for, 303.
Painting, 300.
Varnishing, 303.
Cartage, 12.
Cartoon paper, 261.

,, Transferring, to work, 204.
('art' ens, Wall for large, 21.
Caustic brushes, 56.
Ceiling, A bad wall or, 137.
,, Painting, 161.
,, Papering, 110.
,, papers, 9S.

,, stains in. Treatment of, 137.
„ Whitening, 136.

INDEX.

313

Cellar walls, Treatment of, 141.
• Cement, Blisters on, 165.
,, Keene's, 87.
,, Mastic, 87.

Portland, 171.
Character in ornament, '250.
Charcoal burners, 46.

,, drawings, fixing same,
261.
Charlton white, 75.
Chemical staining, 174.

,, stains, 177.
Children's room, Importance of white

in, 10.
Chinese blue, 78.
Chromatic circles, Experimental use

of, 286.
Chrome greens, 79.
Chromes, 77.
Circle, Colour, 284.

,, ,, Practical use of 286.

,, ,, Theories based on,

286.
,, ,, To construct a, 286.

Cissing and pinholing, 192.
Clair ecolle, Laying on, 137.

Mixing, 116.
Clairecolleing and preparing ceilings,

137.
Classes for painters' students, 306.
,, of staining, 174.
,, of varnish, 183.
Cleaning stencil plates, 272.
Cleanliness in relation to beauty, 5.

,, in working, 11.

Clear size, 219.
Client's requirements, 12.
Coach-painting, 300.

,, v. house-painting, 300.

,, Preparation for, 301.

Coat, First, on new plaster, 146.

,, Second, on new plaster, 147.
Coating over old distemper, 139.
Coats, Finishing, on wood - work,
157.
,, Number of, on new wood-
work, 152.
,, Result of too many, 151.
„ Sequence of, in painting, 161.
,, Successive, of varnish, 185.
Cobalt blue, 79.
,, green, 79.
Coe's gilding wheels, 228.
Colour circle, 284.

Colour circle, How to construct, 286.
,, Practical use of, 286.

,, Theories based on,

286.
Colour, Action of light in producing,

2S3.
,, and artificial light, 291.
,, and association, 290.
,. and conventionality, 252.
,, and temperament, 249.
,, and the law of gravitation,

248.
Black and white in schemes

of, 291.
,, Broken, 251.
,, Classes of, combinations,

28S.
., combinations, 292.
, , Considerations governing use

of, 247.
,, Constructive use of, 248.
,, contrasting couplets, 292.
,, Decorative use of, compared

to that of ornament, 249.
,, Definition of, 283.
,, Effect of distance on, 2S6.
,, ,, of intermixture, 287.

,, ,, On health of children,

10.
,, Fat, and smudge, 25.
,, for lettering, 234.
,, for painting ornament, 269.
, , for stencilling in distemper,

264.
,, Importance of, in decora-
tion, 246.
,, in decoration, 283.
,, in external painting, 291.
,, in nature, 249.
,, Influence of pattern upon,

246.
Intervals between, on the

spectrum, 2S4.
,, Limit in distempering, 135.
,, lining for use in distemper,

265.
,, Lowering of hues in, 290.
,, Methods of selecting a,

scheme, 289.
,, Mixing, 115.
,, Movement and respose in,

291.
,, Natural, deepening in wood,

176.

314

INDEX.

(Joluur of pattern on grounds, 292.
,, Popular nomenclature of,
and guide to, 128.
quiet-toned couplets, 292.
relation to substance, 248.
Requirements for study of,

286.
schemes used by the writer,

293.
Scientific aspect of, 283.
Transparent, on distemper,

269.
Triune combination, 294.
values and qualities, 2S9.
Colouring, Analogous, 2S8.

brick walls, 142.

Contrasting, 288.

Deceptive, 249.

Dominant factor in, 290.

Monochromatic, 288.

of halls, 7.

of paint shop, 15.

Ornamental, in high relief
work, 279.

Personal prejudice in, 292.

Suggestion of weight in,
248.

Colourist, Useful rules for, 290.
Colours, Artificial light on, 295.
Coach -painters', 82.
Complementary, 284.
Consistency of, ground in

oil, 80.
Drawers for powder, 18.
Effect of juxtaposition on,

285.
Floatingof, indistemper,138.
How to keep turpentine-
ground, 27.
How to keep water-ground,

27.
Importance of situation on,

291.
Important rules for match-
ing, 127.
in oil required for stock,

28.
Light and heavy, 290.
List of, for water-coating

woods, 178.
Matching, in paint, 126.
Recipes for popular, 129
recommended for tinting

and staining, 125.

Colours required on paint bench,
16.
,, Sinking of, in distemper,

138.
,, Twelve, for colour box, 82.
Combination, Classes of colour, 288.

,, Harmony of, 253.

Combinations, Colour, 292.

,, Triune colour, 294.

Combine, Pigments that will, 12S.
Combustion, Spontaneous, 15.
Commixture of pigments, 81.
Comparative prices of material, 89.
,, ,, painting, 299.

,, utility of stains, 175.

Comparison between wallpaper and

painting, 97.
Complementary colours, 287.
Complete list of distemper stainers,

133.
Compo, Sanding, 150.

,, Treatment of external, 149.
Composite papers, 97.

,, tints, and how produced,

128.
Composition of light, 284.
Condition of new wood- work, 152.
Confusion without richness, 253.
Considerations governing the use of
colour, 247.
,, Special, in house

painting, 6.
Consistency of oil colours, 80.
Constructing a colour circle, 2S6.
Construction of lettering, 232.
Constructive decoration, 256.

,, use of colour, 247.

Continuous paper, Introduciun of,

94.
Contrast of gloss and flat, 276.
, , , , interest 253.

,, line, 252.
,, ,, pattern, 252.
,, ,, surfaces, 253.
,, Value of, in selecting papers,
9.
Contrasting colour couplets, 292.
Conventionalism in ornament, 251.
Conventionality and colour, 252.

,, ,, repetition, 252.

Copper, Painting, of, 170.
Cordelova, 99, 100.
Cords, Ladder fall, 39.
,, Scaffold, 39.

INDEX.

315

Cornices, Painting, 160.

related to wall, 290.
Cotton waste v. shreds, 15.
Couplets of colour, Quiet-toned, 292.
Covering power test, 71.
Cracked, Lining ceilings that are,

111.
Cracking and wrinkles in varnish,

192.
Cracks in floors, 1S2.

,, in paint, 163.
Cradles, 40.

Creative faculty in design, 246.
Crimson lake, SO.
Crippling in brushes, 64.
Cupboard in paint shop, 20.
Cutting stencils, 2d3.
Cycles, Painting, 305.

Damp walls, 104, 141.
Dampness and stains, 140.
Day-book for rough entries, 47.
Deceptive colouring, 249.

,, Is graining, 196.
Decorating carriages, 301.
Decoration, aesthetic effects in relief
work, 282.
,, Breadth of effect in, 254.

,, Bronzing relief, 280.

,, Colour in, 283.

,, Constructive, 257.

,, General principles of,

246.
,, historic, Colour in, 2S3.

,, Importance of colour in,

246.
,, Lacquering relief, 281.

,, Laws in ornamental, 256.

Metalling relief, 2S0.
,, Obliteration of old, 150.

,, of details and mouldings,

257.
,, of gesso, 279.

,, of relievo materials, 277.

,, Old ivory, effect in relief,

279.
,, Painted, 271.

, , Pottery effects on relief,

281.
,, Qualities in distemper,

260.

Decoration, Qualities necessary in,
252.
Relievo, 277.
,, Unity in, 255.

, , Use of gold leaf in, 257.

,, Wood and leather effects

in, 281.
,, ,, effects in relief,

279.
Decorative artists' browns, 76.

,, Consideration of a,

scheme, 254.
,, effects on staining, 179.

,, media for painting on

distemper, 133.
,, relief material before fix-

ing, 282.
Definition of colour, 2S3.

,, plain painting, 145.

Derby red, 78.
Derivation of pigments, 81.
Desiderata in staining, 174.
Design, Choice of, for staining, 181.
,, Creative faculty in, 246.
,, Measuring for a, 297.
Designing stencils, 261.
Designs, Sketch, 260.
Destructive, Pigments, to oneanother,

128.
Devonshire marble, 214.
Dining-room, Treatment of, 7.
Distance, Effect of, on colour, 2S5.

,, Ornament and, 254.
Distemper, Advantages of, 134.
,, Alum in, 117.

,, American, 140.

,, ,, brushes, 54.

,, Bronzing upon, 270.

,, brushes, 52.

,, Brushes for, 143.

,, Cleaning, 136.

,, Coating upon, 139.

,, Colours floating in, 138.

,, ,, sinking in, 138.

,, Comparison of, with

painting, 271.
,, complete list of stainers,

133.
,, Decoration in, 260.

,, ,, on canvas, 142.

,, Description of, 134.

,, Difference between paint

and, 138.
„ Durability of, 136.

31G

1NDKX.

Distemper filling
155.

for paint work,

flat brushes, 53.

< Hiding upon, 270.

knot brushes, 53.

Laying on, 13S.

Limitations of, 135, 143.

Lining colours for, 265.
,, fitches for, 264.

Materials added to, 143.

Mixing, 116, 135.

Objections to, 135.

on white lining paper,
142.

on wood-work, 142.

Outlining on, 269.

Painting colour for orna-
ment on, 265.

Painting plaster prior to,
140.

Palette for painting, 269.

Picking out enrichments
in, 266.

Pigments not to be used
in, 128.

Possibilities of, 136.

Preparation of surfaces
for, 135.

Qualities of, for decora-
tion, 260.

Running lines on, 267.

Sizes of, brushes, 55.

Stencilling colour for use
on, 266.
on, 264.

Stippling, 140.

Stopping prior to, 136.

Straight edge for use on,
268.

Surfaces for, 135.

Temperature while lay-
ing on, 139.

The best brushes for,
54.

Transparent colours on,
269.

Uneven suction for, 139.

Uses of, 134.

Washable, 87, 143, 144.

Washing off old, 139.

Work suitable for execu-
tion in, 260.
Distempering, 134.
Distinctness in ornament, 263.

Dominant factor in colouring, 290.
Door, Rotation of parts in painting a,

160.
Drawers for powder colours, 18.

,, ,, stencil plates, 21.

,, in paint bench, 16.
Drawing-room, Treatment of, 8.
Drawings, Full size, for ornament,

261.
Driers, 84.

,, French powder, 85.

,, Liquid and terebine, 84.

,, Seccoline, 85.
Drop black, SO.

Drums, kegs, &c, for stock, 44.
Dry colours for stock, 28.
Drying action of paints, 123.

,, agents for paints, 84.
Duresco, 87, 139, 141.
Dust sheets, 41.
Dusters, Painters', 56.
Dusting, 163.
Dutch pink, 77.

Basel, Sign writers', 22.
Economy in working, 10.

,, of proper storage, 13.
Edges, Painting round, 163.
Edging papers, 106.
Effects in relief decoration, 281.
Elaborated stencilling, 273.
Elastic and hard varnishes, 1S4.
Embossing glass, 240.
Emerald green, 79.
Empties, Return of, 24.
Enamels, 195.

,, and Japans, 184.

,, Grounds for, 171.

Polished white, 194.
Use of, 193.
Enrichment of lettering, 2.'>4.
Entrance doors, Treatment of, 7.
Estimating and measuring, 297.
Etching on glass, 242.
Experimental use of colour circle,
^ 287.

External, Course of, treatment for
compo, 149.

,, Rough lime white for, 131.

,, use of colour, 291.

317

Faerikona, 100.
Factitious ultramarine, 78.
Fashion v. beauty, 256.
Fat colour and smudge, 25.

,, ,, Salvage of, 26.

Fat edges, 163.
Faults in varnishing, 192.
Felt for rubbing down, 191.
Felting down varnish, 191.
Fibre scrub brushes, 56.

,, Test for, in brushes, 51.
Fibrous plaster, 100.
Fillers, Wood, 182.
Filling, Distemper, for painted work,
155.
,, powders, 87, 155.
Filling up, 155.

,, quick, 155.

,, ,, on coach bodies, 301.

, , White lead and ochre for,

156.
Finishing coats on wood-work, 157.
,, colour for carriage paint-

ing, 303.
Fire-proof paints, 171.
Fitches, 64.

,, French, 65.
,, Lining, 65.
Fitting up stores, 23.
Fittings and furniture for paint shop,
15.
,, Removal of, when papering,
111.
Flat varnish brushes, 62.

,, wall painting brushes, 55.
Flatting and gloss contrasted, 276.
,, Bastard, for wood -work,

157.
,, Hints on, 163.
,, new plaster walls, 147.
,, on wood- work, 157.
,, walls, 147.
Flats, Camel-hair, 68.
Flax and jute canvas, 100.
Flock papers, 95.
Floors, Staining, 176, 182.

, , stone, To protect, from pain t,
42.
Flour barrel, 20.

Flower painting in decoration, 275
Formulas, Dangers of set, 115.
Furniture of the paint shop, 15.

Gas in painting room, 22.
Gilding, 216.

,, and bronzing, 216.

,, Burnish and matt, 223.

Definition of, 216.
,, glass, 224.

Methods of, 217.
,, on distemper, 270.
,, Preparing oak for open
grain, 228.
Tools for, 219.
,, wheels, Coe's, 228.
Gesso, 278.

, , Advantages of, 278.
,, Decoration of, 279.
, , High relief, 278.
,, Ingredients for, 278.
,-, Low relief, 279.
, , method of work, 279.
Glass embossing, 240.
,, Etching on, 242.
,, paper, 88.

,, writing and gilding, 224, 241.
Glaze stencilling, 273.
Gloss and flatting contrasted, 276.
Glue, 86.
,, paste, 111, 112.
,, Sichel, 144.
Gold and black marble, 214.
,, burnish size, 218.
., leaf described, 217.

,, ribbons, 228.
,, size, Isinglass, 219.
,, ,, Japanners', 218.

,, Matt, 219.
„■■ „ Oil, 217.

,, Water, 218.
,, Substitution of baser metals

for, 217.
,, To prevent adhesion of, to

ground, 222.
,, Use of, in decoration, 257.
,, v. yellow, 291.
Graining, 202.

,, absorbia, 211.

ash, 210.
,, brushes, 65.

Hints on, 211.
,, in stain, 175.
, , Is it deceptive, 196.
,, limitations, 196.
,, mahogany, 207.

318

INDEX.

Graining maple, 209.
,, oak, 202.
,, pitch pine, 209.
,, pollard oak, 207.
,, positions where desirable,

199.
,, rosewood, 209.
,, satinwood, 210.
,, The condemnation of, 197.
,, The intention of the grainer

in, 19S.
,, The limit to imitative

quality of, 200.
,, Tools used for oak, 202.
,, transfer, 211.
,, Various methods of work

in, 201.
,, walnut, 208.

What is it, 196.
,, What to imitate in, 199.
Graniting, 214.
Gravitation laws and use of colour,

248.
Greasy walls, 143.
Green Lakes, 80.
,, Marbles, 214.
„ Suffield, 80.
Greens, Bronze and Quaker, 79.
,, Brunswick, 79.
Chrome, 79.
Cobalt, 79.
Emerald, 79.
,, Mineral, 79.

Mixed, 79.
,, The use of, 291.
Grey marbles, 213.
Grittiness in varnishing, 192.
Ground, Colour of pattern upon, 292.

,, or paint brushes, 58.
Grounds for enamelling, 171.
,, raised pattern, 278.
,, Roughened ground for gild-
ing on, 276.
,, Texture, 279.
Guide to popular colour names, 128.

Hairs and bristles, 50.
Hall, Colouring of the, 7.
Hand-painted ornament, 273.
Hanging paperhangings, 101.
,, relief decorations, 112.

Hangings, Early wall, 93.
,, Leather wall, 93.
,, Origin of wall, 93.
,, Paper and wall, if 3.

,, Relievo wall, 99.

Hannay white lead, 72.
Hard v. Elastic Varnish, 184.
Hardening of stock colours, 27.
Harmony of combination, 257.
Health and the trade, 11.

,, bad, among painters, causes

of, 11.
,, of children, Effects of colour
on, 10.
Heavy and light colours, 290.
High relief gesso, 278.
Historic ornament, 250.

„ ,, Colour in, 2S3.

,, ,, True use of, 251.

Hog hair, 49.

Hot pipes and stove painting, 169.
House-painting v. coach-painting,
300.
,, Special considera-

tions in, 6.
Hues, Lowering of, in pigments, 288.

Illegible typos of lettering, 230.
Imitative painting, 196.

,, quality and its limits, 197.
Imitation i>. suggestion, 197.
Importance of stencilling, 273.
Impressions conveyed by the eye, 9.
Improving woods, 175.
Indian red, 77.
Indigo, 79.
Infection, 140.
Insulating paints, 170.
Intention of the grainer, 198.
Interest, Contrast of, 253.
Intermixture, Effect of, on colours,

285.
Interval between colours in spectrum,

2S4.
Iron, Blisters on, 165.

,, Tainting, 168.

,, Re-painting old, 169.
Isinglass gold size. 219.
Italian pink marble, 21.'!.
Ivory black, 80.

,, Old, effect on relief decora*
tions, 279.

INDEX.

319

Japanese leather papers, 99.
Japanners' gold size, 218.
Japans and enamels, 184.
Jeffrey's wall papers, 97.
Job, Despatch of materials for, 25.

,, Quantity of plant for, 48.
Jute and flax canvas, 100.
Juxtaposition of colours, Effect of,

285.

Keen's cement, 87.

Kegs for stockkeeping, 44.

Kettles and cans, 44.

Klingcona, 113.

Knives for paint stone, 16, 22.

,, Trimming, 114.
Knots, 163, 165.
Knotting, 152.

,, work prior to painting, 163.
Knowledge of brushes of all kinds

necessary, 266.

Lacquering relief decorations, 281.
Lacquers, 194.

,, for metals, 217.
,, Permanence in, 281.
Ladder falls, 33.

,, cords, 39.

Ladders, 31.

,, and plank supports, 32.

,, London, 33.

,, Painting, 33.

,, Raising long, 33.

,, Selection of, 32.

,, Splicing, 32.

,, Warnings in the using of, 33,
Lakes, Brown, 78.

,, Crimson, 78.

,, Green, 80.
Lamp black, 79.
Lamps, Burning- off, 45.
Lapis lazuli, 214.
Laying on clairecolle, 137.

,, ,, distemper, 138.

,, gold leaf, 220.
Lazuli, Lapis, 214.
Leaf, Description of gold, 217.

Leaf, Laying gold, 220.

,, metals in decorating, 217.
Leather and wood effects on relief
decoration, 281.
,, papers, 96.
,, ,, Japanese, 99.

,, wall hangings, 96.
Lettering and sign writing, 229.
Books on, 231.
Colour of, 234.
Enrichment of, 235.
Legible type in, 231.
Methods of work in, 233-
plant, 33.

Prominence in, 230.
Shaded, 230.
Letters, Forms of, changed by en-
vironment, 232.
Painting, 238.
,, Rules for construction of,
233.
Library, Treatment of, 9.
Light, Action of, in producing colour,
283.
Analysis of, 284.
and heavy colours, 290.
and shade painting, 275.
Artificial, on colour, 295.
Composition of, 283.
Lighting, Artificial, in paint shop, 14.
,, Natural, ,, 14.

Lights, Objection to sky, 14.
Lime blue, 75.

,, nibs in walls, 152.
,, white brushes, 56.
Limitations, Artistic, of staining, 174.
,, of distemper, 135, 144.

,, of graining, 200.

Lincrusta, 99.
Line, Contrast of, 266.
Liners, 66.

Lines on distemper, 267.
Lining and decorating carriages, 304.
,, colour for use on distemper,

265.
,, cracked ceilings, 111.
,, fitches, 65.
,, ,, and colour, 266.

,, on paint, 275.
,, papers, 110.
,, ,, Distempering on, 138,

139.
,, straight edge for distemper,
268.

320

INDEX.

Linseed oil, 84.

Liquid driers and terebine, 84.

Litharge, S4.

Lowering hues in colour, 290.

Low relief gesso painting, 279.

Lubrose paints, 171.

Luminous paints, 171.

Machine v. block printed papers, 94
Madders, 78.
Mahogany graining, 207.
Mander-Hannay white lead, 72.
Mander's matsine, 181.
Maple graining, 209.
Marble, Black and gold. 213.
,, Devonshire, 214.
„ Green, 214.
Grey, 213.
,, Italian pink, 213.
Red, 213.
Sienna, 213.
,, St. Anne's, 214.
White, 212.
Marbling, 212.
Marking plant, 42.
Mass of pattern, 254.
Mastic cement, 87.
Matching colours in paint, 126.
,, edges in papering, 109.
, , Important rules for colour,

127.
,, stone, 142.
Material, Comparative prices of, 89.
,, Decorative low relief, 282.
,, Despatch of, for a job, 25.
Materials, 70.

,, Decoration of relievo, 279.
Matsine, 181.
Matt and burnish gilding, 223.

,, gold size, 219.
Measuring and estimating, 297.
,, for a design, 297.

,, for paper, 105.

Media for decorative painting in dis-
temper, 133.
Mediums and binders for water

colour, 87.
Metal and silver leaf laying, 226.
,, painting, 167, 169.
,, papers, 95.

,, substituted for gold leaf, 217.
Metals, Lacquer for, 227.

Metals, Leaf used in decorating, 217.
Metalling relief decoration, -80.
Method and order, 10.
Mill, Paint, 20.
Mineral greens, 79.
Mixed „ 79.
,, pigments, 81.
,, tints and colours, 127.
Mixing boards, 44.

,, clairecolle, 116.

,, colour, 115.

,, distemper, 116, 135.

,, General hints on paint, 125.

,, paint, 118.

,, ,, proportion table, 120.

Monochromatic colouring, 288.
Mops, Camel-hair, 67.
Motor car painting, 305.
Movement and repose in colour, 291.
Mouldings, Decoration of details of,

257.
Midlers, Paint, 22.

Naphthaline stains, 182.

Nature, Colour in, 249.

New blue, 78.

Nomenclature of colours, Popular,

129.
Number of coats for wood- work, 153.
Nurseries, Treatment of, 10.

Oak graining, 202.

„ ,, tools. 202.

,, Preparing, for gilding, 228.
Oates' trimmer, 107.
Objects of plain painting, 145.

,, of priming, 153.
Ochre and white lead filling up, 156.
„ Red, 76.
,, Yellow, 75.
Odour of paint, To kill, 167.
Oil, Boiled, 86.

,, colours, Consistency of, 80.

,, Effects of, in mixing paint, 119.

,, gold size, 217.

,, Linseed, 85.

,, List of stains, 177.

,, staining, 175.

321

Oil tanks, 19.
,, varnishes, 184.
Oiling woods, 177.
Old iron-work, Re-painting, 169.
Olsina, 195.
Opaque and transparent pigments,

126.
Order and method, 10.
Ornament, 249.

,, and distance, 254.

,, Character in, 251.

,, Conventionalism in, 251.

, , Decorative uses of, 247.

,, Distinctness in, 254.

,, Forms suitable for

painted, 274.
,, Full sized drawings for,

261.
Historic, 250.
,, Laws in decorative, 256.

,, Mixing styles of, 250.

„ Objects of, 250.

,, Qualities necessai'y in,

251.
,, painted on a flat ground,

276.
„ painting colour for use on

distemper, 265.
„ ,, in light and

shade, 275.
Scale in, 253.
Setting out, 261.
,, Symmetry in, 255.

,, Tools for setting out, 261.

s , True use of historic, 250.

, , Use of knowledge of style

in, 251.
,, Variety in, 252.

Ornamental colouring in relief work,
279, 281.
,, staining, 179.

Orr's zinc white, 75.
Outlining on distemper, 269.
Outside painting, Time for, 167.

, , treatment of house, 7.
Ox -hair writers, 66.
Oxide of zinc, 74.

Paint, Acid resisting, 170.

,, and distemper compared, 260.
,, bench, Colours required on,
16.

Paint bench, Drawers in, 16.

,, ,, Zinc for covering, 18.

,, Black, 80.

,, Burning off old, 157.

, , Cissing of, 165.

,, Consistence of, 160.

,, Cracking of, 163.

,, Drying of, 166.

,, Flashing, 165.

,, Grinning through, 166.

,, knives, 16.

,, Qualifications of, 145.

,, Quantity of, to cover given

area, 131.
,, Lining in, 275.
,, mixing, 118.
,, ,, Effect of oil and

turps in, 119.
,, ,, General hints on,

125.
mills, 20.
,, ,, proportion table, 120.

,, matching of colours, 127.
,, mullers, 17.
,, odour of, To kill, 167.
,, or ground brushes, 58.
,, Protective agency in, 124.
,, removing solvents, 159.
,, Ropiness in, 166.
,, shop, 14.

,, ,, artificial lighting, 14.
,, ,, benches, 15.
,, ,, Colouring of, 15.
,, ,, cupboards, 20.
,, ,, Fittings and furniture

of, 15.
,, ,, natural lighting, 14.
,, ,, Position of, 14.
,, ,, Rough day-book on, 19.
,, ,, shelves, 23.
,, ,, Waste in, 25.
,, ,, Water in, 14.
,, Stencilling in, 269.
,, stones and muller and knives,

15, 22.
„ Striking, 165.
,, Suggestions when stencilling

in, 273.
,, work, Filling for, 155.
Painted ground, Stencilling on, 272.

,, ornament, Hand-, 273.

,, ,, on flatting, 275.

,, ,, shaded in glazes, 275.

,, walls, Re-painting old, 150.
21

322

INDEX.

Painted walls, Rubbing down, 148.
,, ,, Stopping old, 151.

,, work, Size on, 162.
Painters' dusters, 57.

,, stock, List of required, 28.
, , technical classes, 306.
Painting and wall papers compared,
97.
,, brushes, 58.
,, ,, flat wall, 55.

,, canvas, 170.
,, carriages, 300.
,, ceilings, 161.

Coach-, 300.
, , , , Preparation for, 30 1 .

,, Considerations for, 6.

copper, 170.
,. cornices, 160.
, door, Rotation of, 160.

,, edges, 163.
,, External colour of, 291.
,, Flowers in decoration, 27;").
,, Forms of ornament for, 274.
,, fresco, 277.
,, General hints on, 160.
,, Imitative, 196.
,, iron, 169.
,. Knotting work prior to,

162.
,, ladders, 33.
,, letters, 238.
,, metal, 168.
,, pipes (hot), 169.

Plain, 145.
,, ,, Definition of, 145.

,, ,, Objects of, 145.

,, plant, 42.
,, plaster, new, 146, 152.
,, ,, prior to distemper-

ing, 140.
,, prices, comparative, 299.
,, room, 21.

„ Gas in, 22.
,, ,, Portable benches in,

22.
,, ,, Reference books for,

22.
,. sash windows, 160.
,. Sequence of coats in, 161.

Ship-, 305.
,, signs, 16S.

silk, 275.
,, stone, 150.
,, stucco, external, 149.

Painting stucco, interna], 149.

Technical terms used in, 1 62.
Time for outside, li>7.
velvet, 275.
wood- work, new, 152.

,, General liint^,

159.
zinc, 158.
Paints, Drying action in, 123.
,, ,, agents for, 84.

,, Fireproof, 171.
,, for various purposes, 171.
,, Insulating, 170.
,, Luminous, 171.
,, Quick drying, 170.
Pans or pots, 44.
Paper and wall hangings, 93.
,, Cartoon, 261.
,, Distempering on, 138.
,, Glass, 88.
,, Measuring for, 1(15.
,, Stencil, 262.
Paperhanger, Pasting paper for, 108.
,, Requisite qualities for,

101.
Paperhangers1 brushes, 65.

,, rollers and brushes,

101.
,, routine, 107.

,, trestles, 41.

Paperhanging, 101.

,, ceilings, 109.

,, Matching edges in,

1U9.
,, panelling and border-

ing, 111.
,, Preparing walls for,

103.
,, Removal of fittings

when, 111.
,, Tools required for,

101.
,, Trimming machines

used in, 106.
Paperliangings, Hanging, 101.

,, Introduction of con-

tinuous, 94.
,, Methods used in

making, 94.
Papers, Advantage of hand printed,
94.
,. block v. machine, 94.
Ceiling, OS.
Choice of, 98.

INDEX.

323

Papers, Classes of, 94.
,, Dimensions of, 96.
,, Distinction between hand

and machine, 94.
,, Edging, 106.
,, First use of, 93.
,, Flock, 95.
,, Japanese leather, 99.
,, Leather, 96
,, Lining, 110.

Metal, 95.
,, Qualities of, 94.
,, Sanitaries', 95.
,, Selection of, 97.
Trimming, 106.
,, Value of contrast in, 98.
., Varieties of, 91.
,, Varnished, 96.
Paste, 105.

,, for anaglypta, 112.
„ glue, 112.

,, To prevent souring in, 106.
Pasteboards, 40.
Pattern and mass, 255.

,, Coloiir of, on ground, 292.

Contrast of, 252.
,, Influence of, on colour, 246.
Pattinson's white, 75.
Pencils, Sizes of, <i6.
Use of, 238.
Permanence in lacquers, 280.
Personal prejudices in colouring,

292.
Philosophy of house painting, 5.
Picking out enrichments in dis-
temper, 266.
Pickle cask, 19.
Pigments, adulteration of, 81.
,, Commixture of, 81.
,, Derivation of, 81.
, , destructive to one another,

128.
,, Importance of good, 88.
,, not to be used in dis-
temper, 128.
,, Opaque, 126.
,, Peady-mixed, 83.
,, Test for staining power of,

82.
,, that combine well, 128.
,, to be used in water only,

128.
,, Transparent, 126.
Pinholes and cissing, 192.

Pink, Italian, marble, 213.
Pinks, Dutch, 77.
Pitch pine, Graining, 209.
Planks, 34.

,, Clamping, 35.
,, Description of good, 35.
,, Selection of, 34.
,, supports for ladders, 34.
Plant and appliances, 31.
,, book, 47.
,, Lettering, 42.
„ Marking, 42.

,, Quantity of, to send to a job, 48.
Plaster and stoppings, 87.
,, and whiting bins, 19.

Fibrous, 100.
,, new, Painting on, 146, 152.
,, ,, First and second coat

on, 146, 147.
,, ,, Third and fourth coat

on, 147.
,, Staining with oil stains, 1S1.
,, Stains in, 140.
,, walls, Flatting, 147.
,, ,, Stopping, 146.

Plastine, 87.
Plate, stencil, Preparation of, 262,

271.
Plates, Care of stencil, 268.
Platinum and silver leaf laying, 226.
Poles, Scaffold, 34.

,, ,, Selection of, 34.

Polishing varnish work, 191.
Pollard oak, Graining, 207.
Popular cokrars, Guide to, 128.

,, ,, Recipes for, 128.

Portland cement, 171.
Positions where graining is desirable,

199.
Pots or pans. 44.

„ Small, 44.
Pottery effects in relievo decoration,

281.
Pounce bag and pouncers, 238, 264.

,, To make a, 263.
Pounces, To secure correct register

in, 270.
Powder colour, Drawer for, 18.
Practical use of colour circle, 2S6.
Premises, Efficient, a necessity, 13.
Preparation of oil and other putties,
132.
,, of surfaces for distemper,

135.

324

INDEX.

Preparation of large surfaces for dis-
temper, 137.
Preparing ceiling and clairecolleing,

136.
Preservation of size, 86.

,, sable pencils, 66.

Prevention of blistering, 165.
Prices of material, Comparative, 89.

,, painting, ,, 299.

Priming, 168.

,, new wood- work, 152.

,, Rubbing down, after, 154.
Principal varnishes in use, 186.
Principles of decoration, General,

246.
Production of composite tints, 128.
Prussian blue, 78.
Pulley blocks, 40.
Pumice stone, 88.

,, ,, compo, 88.

,, ,, powder, 88.

Putties, Preparation of, 132.

,, Recipes for, 132.
Putty, 87.

Quaker greens, 79.
Qualifications of paint, 145.
Qualities existing in colour, 287.

,, necessary to decorative
ornament, 253.
Quantity of paint for a given area,

131.
Quick drying paints, 170.
,, rilling up, 156.

Raised pattern grounds, 277.
Raw ».\ boiled oil, 124.

,, sienna, 76.

,, umber, 76.
Ready mixed paints, 83.
Reasons, Principal, for painting, 5.
Recipes for popular colours, 128.
,, for stopping and i nifties, 132.
,, for whitewash, 132.
Red, Aniline, 78.

„ Derby, 78.

Red Indian, 77.
„ lead, 78.
,, marble, 213.
,, ochre, 76.
,, Venetian, 77.
Reference books in painting room, 22.
Relief decoration, Esthetic effects in,
281.
,, ,. bronzing, 280.

,, ,, fixing material,

278.
,, ,, hanging material,

112.
,. ,, Ivory effects in,

279.
,, ,, laccpiering, 281.

metalling. 280.
,, ,, ornamental colour-

ing, 279, 281.
,, ,, Pottery effects in,

281.
,, ,, Wood and leather

effects in, 281.
Gesso, 278, 279.
,, surfaces, Accidental effect in,
278.
Relievo decoration, 278.
,, hangings, 19.
,, ,, Decorating, 279.

,, stencil work, 278
Removal of fittings when paperhang-
ing, 111.
,, of paint and solvents, 159.
Removers, Paint, 159.
Re painting iron-work, 169.
walls, 150.
,, Washing down prior to,

162.
,, wood work, 156.

Repetition and conventionality, 252.
Repose and movement in colour,

291.
Requirements for study of colour,

289.
Returned residuum of paint, 25.
Returns of empty packages, 24.
Ribbon gold leaf, 228.
Richness without confusion, 253.
Ridgley trimmer, 113.
Ripolin, 195.

Holler for paperhanging, 102.
Rosewood, Graining. 209.
Roughened ground for painting on,
276.

INDEX.

oi'a

Rubbing down, 163, 188.

,, ,, after burning off

woodwork, 159.
., after priming, 154.
„ felts, 191.
,, ,, in colour, 156.

,, ,, newly painted walls,

148.
,, ,, walls, 103.

Rules, Useful, to the colourist, 290.

Sable pencils, Hints on use of,
238.
,, ,, Preservation of, 66.

,, writers, 66.
Sablea, Extra long, 66.
,, Short, 66.
,, Sizes of, 66.
Saint Anne's marble, 214.
Sanding compo, 150.
Sanitary wall papers, 95.
Sappy wood, 154.
Sash tools, 62.

,, window, Painting a, 160.
Satin wood, Graining, 210.
Satinette, 195.
Scaffolding, 35.

,, cords, 39.

, , Iron rods in, 43.

,, knots, 36.

,, poles, 34.

,, Storage of, 43.

Testing of, 42.
Scale in ornament, 253.
Scales and weighing machine, 18.
Schemes of colour used by the writer,

293.
Science and truth, 6.

, . Relation of, to art, 6.
Scientific aspect of colour, 283.
Scotch whitewash 133.
Scrub brush fibre, 58.
Seccoline, 85.
Selecting a colour scheme, 289.

,, papers, 97.
Selection of ladders, 32.

,, poles and planks, 34.

Sequence of coats in painting, 161
Setting out ornament, 261.
,, sign writing 235.

,, stencils, 263.

Setting out, Tools required for,

261.
Sgraffito, 2S2.

Shade and light in painting, 273.
Shaded lettering, 230.
Sheets, Dust, 41.
Shelves in paint shop, 20.
Ship-painting, 305.
Shreds, 15.
Sichel glue, 144.
Sienna, Burnt and raw, 76.

,, marble, 213.
Sign writing and lettering 229.

,, ,, Aphorisms for, 244.

,, ,, General notes on, 243.

,, writers' easels, 22.
Signs, Painting, 168.
Silicate paint, 83.
Silk, Painting, 275.

,, Writing on, 240.
Silver, Laying, 226.
Situation of colours in a scheme,

291.
Size, 86.

,, Burnishers' gold, 21S.

,, Clear, 219.

,, Isinglass, 219.

,, Japanners' gold, 218.

„ Matt gold, 219.

,, Oil, 217.

,, on painted work, 162.

,, Preservation of, 86.

,, Water gold, 218.
Sketch designs, 260.
Skinning of stock colours, 27.
Smalts, 79.

Smudge and fat colour, 25.
» keg, 19.
,, Salvage of, 26.
,, Thinnings for, 26.
Smutch pan or brush washer, 1 7.
Softeners, 65.
Solvents for removing paint, 159,

172.
Souring of paste, To prevent, 106.
Special considerations in painting, 6.
Spliced, On using ladders that are,

33.
Splicing ladders, 33.
Spirit stains, List of, 178.

,, varnishes, 184.
Spontaneous combustion, 15.
Spray painting, 171.
Stain graining, 175.

326

INDKX.

Stainers, Complete list of, for dis-
temper, L33.
.Staining, 1 73.

,, Artistic limitations of, 174.

,, Chemical, 174.

,, Classes of, 174.

,, Colours for use in, 125.

,, Decorative effects in, 181.

,, Designs for, 181.

,, Emphasising grain of wood

by, 177.
,, finished plaster work, 181.
floors, 176.
Oil, 175.
,, Ornamental, 179.

Spirit, 175.
,, Test for pigments' power

of, 82.
,, Varnish, 175.
„ Water, 174.

Woods for, 174.
Stains and dampness, 141.
,, Application of, 176.
,, Chemical, 178.
,, Comparative utility of, 175.
,, in plaster, 140.
,, List of oil, 177.
,, ,, water, 177.

,, Treatment of ceiling, 137.
,, Wax, 175.
Stencilling colour for use in dis-
temper, 267.
,, Elaborated, 273.

,, glaze, 273.
, , in paint, 269.
,, on a distemper ground,

270.
,, on painted ground, 273.

Stencils, Care of, 269.
Cleaning. 270.
,, Correct register of, 270.

Cutting, 262.
,, Designing, 261.
,, Drawers for, 21.

Paper, 262.
,, pins, 265.
,, Preparation of, by writer,

263.
,, relievo work, 278.
,, tools, 66.
Steps, 37.

,. Clumsy, 38.

,, Selection of, ,'!S.

,, Various forms of, 3S.

Stipplers, 64, 149.

,, Washing of, 64.

Stippling, 149.

,, in distemper, 14(1.

Stock articles enumerated, 28.
,, Purchase of, 30.
,, varnishes required, 29.
Stone, P»lister on, 164.

,, floors, To protect from [taint,

42.
,, Matching, 150.
,, Paint, 16.
,, ,, To clean, 16.

,, Painting upon, 150.
,, Pumice, 88.
Slopping and plasters, 87.

,, new wood-work, 154.
old ,, 156.

,, plaster walls prior to paint-
ing, 129, 151.
,, prior to distempering,

136, 146.
,, Recipes for, 132.
Storage of brushes, 69.

,, room, Economy of, 13.
Stores, 23.

,, and workshops, 13.
„ Fitting up, 23.
Stovepipes, To paint, 169.
Straight edges for lining, 268.
Strainers, 46.
Straining varnishes, 187.
Stripping walls, 104.
Stucco, Painting on, 150.
Study of colour, 286.
Style, Use of knowledge of, 251.
Styles of ornament, Danger of mixing,

250.
Substance in relation to colour,

248.
Successive coats of varnish, 185.
Suffield green, 80.

Suggestion of weight in colouring,
24S.
,, for stencilling, 273.

,, v. imitation, 199.

Superfluous ornament, 250.
Surfaces, accidental relief, 278.

,, for distemper, To prepare,

135.
,, ,, ,, Large, 137.

,, ,, varnishing, 189.

Swan quills, 67-
Symmetry in ornament, 255.

INDEX.

327

Table of mixing proportions, 120.

Tar spots, 163.

Technical classes for painters, 306.

,, terms, 162.
Technique useless without applica-
tion, 7.
Temperament and colour, 249.
Temperature while distempering,

139.
Terebine and liquid driers, 84.
Terra vert, 79.
Testing scaffolding, 42.
,, varnishes, 194.
,, white lead, 70.
Texture grounds, 279.
Theories based on colour circle, 284.
Thinnings for smudge, 26.
Time for outside painting, 167.
Tints, Mixed, 127.
Tools and brushes, 49.
., for gilding, 219.
,, ,, graining, 202.
,, ,, paperhanging, 101.
,, ,, sashes, 62.
,, ,, setting out ornament, 261.
Touching up new places in old wood-
work, 157.
Trade and health, 11.
Transfer graining, 211.
Transferring cartoons to work, 263.
Transparent and opaque pigments,
126.
,, colours on distemper,

269.
Treatment of bedrooms, 9.

,, breakfast room, 9.

,, dining-room, 8.

,, drawing-room, 8.

,, entrance doors, 7.

,, library, 9.

,, nurseries, 10.

,, outside of house, 7-

,, rooms generally, 9.

,, vestibule, 8.

Trestles, 36.

Closing 37.
,, Clumsy, 37.
,, Continental, 37.
Heights of, 37.
,, for paint bench, 41.
,, ,, paperhanging, 40.

,, Single, 37.

Trimming knifes, 114.

, , machine for paperhanging,

106.
Triune colour combinations, 294.
Truth and beauty, 6.

,, science, 6.

Tube colours, Conservation of, 27.
Turpentine, S5.

,, Effect when mixing, 1 19.

Twelve colours for oil colour box, 82.
Tynecastle tapestry, 99.
Type for lettering, 229.

Ultramarine, Factitious, 78.
Umber, Burnt, 76.

,, Raw, 76.
Unity in decoration, 252.
Utility of stains, Comparative, 175.

Values, Colour, 287.
Vandyke brown, 6.
Variety in ornament, 252.
Varnish and varnishing, 183.
,, brushes, 61.

flat, 62.
,, Classes of, 183.
., Felting down, 191.
„ Polishing, 191.
,, Successive coats of, 185.
,, staining, 175.
Varnished papers, 96.

, , work, Wrinkles and cracks

in, 193.
Varnishes, Applying, 185.

,, Elastic and Hard, 1S4.

Oil, 184.
,, Principal, in use, 186.

,, required for stock, 29.

Spirit, 184.
,, Straining, 187.

Testing, 194.
Varnishing and varnish, 183.
,, Blooming in, 192.

,, carriages, 303.

Faults in, 192.
,, Grittiness in, 1S5, 193.

328

INDKX.

Varnishing, Hints on, 1S7.

,, Surfaces for, 189.

,, woods without stainim

176.
Vegetable black, 80.
Velvet, Painting on, 275.
Venetian red, 77.
Verdigris, 79.
Verditer, 79.
Vermilion, 77.
Vestibule, Treatment of, 8.
Viridian, 79.

W ill, Cornice related to, 290.
,, for large cartoons, 21.
,, or ceiling in bad condition

137.
,, -paper, shrinkage, 113.
,, -papers, 93.
Walls, brick, Colouring for, 142.
,, Cellar, 141.

Damp, 104, 141.
,, Flatting, 147.
,, ,, for new plaster, 147.

,. Greasy, 135.
,, Lime nibs in, 152.
,, Preparing, 104.
,, Re-painting, 150.

Rubbing down, 104, 148.
,, Stopping, 146, 151.
,, Stripping, 104.
,, Washing, after stripping,
104.
Walnut, Graining, 208.
Walton, Lincrusta, 99.
Washable distemper, 143.
Washing off old distemper, 139.
old work, 162.
,, stipplers, 64.
Waste in paint shop, 25.
Water coating in imitation of wood,
174.
,, ,, Colours for, of wood,

178.
,, colour pigments, 127.
,, gold sizes, 218.
,, in paint shop, 14.
,, mediums for binding colour,

87.
,, staining, 174.

Water staining new wood-work, 176.

,, stains, 177.
Wax stains, 176.
Weighing machine, 18.
Weight in colouring, 248.
Wet wood, 154.
White, Charlton, 75.
,, Enamel, 195.
,, Importance of, on health of

children, 10.
,, marble, 212.
,, Modifications of, 291.

Patent, 75.
,, Pattinson's, 75.
,, use of, 291.
,, Zinc, 74.
White lead, 70.

,, and ouhre filling up, 155.

,, How to keep, 27.

Tests for, 70.
Whiting, 82.

, , and plaster bins, 19.
,, ceilings, 136.
Whitewash, London, 133.
,, Scotch, 133.

Window brackets, 39.
Wood effects in relief decoration, 281.
,, fillers, 182.
,, Graining satin, 210.
Woods, for staining, 173.
,, Improving, 175.
,, Natural deepening of colour,
176.
Oiling, 176.
,, Varnishing natural, 176.
Wood-work, Bastard flatting on, 157.
,, Condition of, prior to

painting, 152.
,, Distempering on, 142.

,, Finishing coats on, 157.

,, Flatting, 157.

,, General hints on paint-

ing, 159.
,, Number of coats on

new, 153.
,, Painting new, 152.

,, Priming new, 153.

,, Rubbing down, 159.

,, Stopping, 154.

,, Touching up, 157.

Work and art identical, 6.
Working, Cleanliness in, 11.
Workshop and stores, 13.
Wrinkles in varnished work, 192.

INDEX.

329

Writer, Colour schemes used by the,

292.
Writers, Aphorisms for, 244.

Camel-hair, 66.

easels, 22.

Ox-hair, 66.

Sable, 66.
Writing, General notes on, 243.

on glass 241.

„ silk, 240.

Setting out, 235.

signs and lettering, 229.

Yellow ochre, 75.

,, v. gold, 291.
Yellows, Artists', 77.

Zinc, Orr's, 75.
,, oxide, 74.
,, Painting on,
,, white, 74.

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